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61. Using, Storing and Transporting Chemicals

61. Using, Storing and Transporting Chemicals (9)

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61. Using, Storing and Transporting Chemicals

Chapter Editors: Jeanne Mager Stellman and Debra Osinsky

 

Table of Contents

Tables and Figures

Safe Handling and Usage of Chemicals

     Case Study: Hazard Communication: The Chemical Safety Data Sheet or the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)

Classification and Labelling Systems for Chemicals
Konstantin K. Sidorov and Igor V. Sanotsky

     Case Study: Classification Systems

Safe Handling and Storage of Chemicals
A.E. Quinn

Compressed Gases: Handling, Storage and Transport
A. Türkdogan and K.R. Mathisen

Laboratory Hygiene
Frank Miller

Methods for Localized Control of Air Contaminants
Louis DiBernardinis

The GESTIS Chemical Information System: A Case Study
Karlheinz Meffert and Roger Stamm

Tables

Click a link below to view table in article context.

  1. Gases often found in compressed form
  2. Standardized GESTIS code system

Figures

Point to a thumbnail to see figure caption, click to see figure in article context.

CHE045F2CHE045F3CHE045F4CHE045F5CHE045F6CHE045F7CHE045F8CHE70F2ACHE70F3A

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62. Minerals and Agricultural Chemicals

62. Minerals and Agricultural Chemicals (8)

Banner 9


62. Minerals and Agricultural Chemicals

Chapter Editors: Debra Osinsky and Jeanne Mager Stellman

Table of Contents

Tables

Minerals

Agricultural Chemicals
Gary A. Page

Pesticides

The WHO Guidelines to Classification of Pesticides by Hazard (Extremely Hazardous to Moderately Hazardous)

The WHO Guidelines to Classification of Pesticides by Hazard (Slightly Hazardous)

The WHO Guidelines to Classification of Pesticides by Hazard (Unlikely to Present Acute Hazard)

The WHO Guidelines to Classification of Pesticides by Hazard (Present Acute Hazard continued)

The WHO Guidelines to Classification of Pesticides by Hazard (Obsolete or Discontinued)

Tables

Click a link below to view table in article context.

  1. Class IA: Extremely hazardous
  2. Class IB: Highly hazardous
  3. Class II: Moderately Hazardous
  4. Class III: Slightly hazardous
  5. Products unlikely to present acute hazard
  6. Absolete or discontinued pesticides
  7. Gaseous/volatile fumigants (unclassified)
View items...
63. Metals: Chemical Properties and Toxicity

63. Metals: Chemical Properties and Toxicity (41)

View items...
Saturday, 19 February 2011 04:24

The WHO Guidelines to Classification of Pesticides by Hazard (Unlikely to Present Acute Hazard)

Table 5. List of technical products unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use

Name

Status

Main use

Chemical 
type

Physical 
state

Route

LD50 (mg/kg)

Remarks

Aclonifen

N(B)

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Acrinathrin

ISO

MT

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Alloxydim

ISO

H

  

S

O

2,260

  

Aminotriazole

N(F)

          

See amitrole

Amitrole

ISO

H

T

S

O

5,000

EHC 158, DS 79; HSG 85

Ammonium sulfamate

ISO

H

  

S

O

3,900

  

Ancymidol

ISO

PGR

  

S

O

4,500

  

Anilazine

ISO

F

T

S

O

2,710

Irritant to eyes and skin

Anthraquinone

ISO

RP (birds)

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Asulam

ISO

H

TC

S

O

+4,000

  

Atrazine

ISO

H

T

S

O

c2,000

DS 82; HSG 47

Aziprotryne

ISO

H

T

S

O

3,600

  

Benalaxyl

ISO

F

  

S

O

c4,200

  

Benazolin

ISO

H

  

S

O

3,200

Irritant to skin and eyes

Benefin

N(A)

          

See benfluralin

Benfluralin

ISO

H

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Benfuresate

ISO

H

  

S

O

2,031

  

Benomyl

ISO

F

TC

S

O

+10,000

EHC 148, DS 87; HSG 81

Benoxacor

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Bensulfuron

N(B)

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Benthrodine

N(J)

          

See benfluralin

Benzamizole

            

See isoxaben

Benzoximate

ISO

AC

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Bifenox

ISO

H

  

S

O

+6,400

  

Bioresmethrin

ISO

I

PY

L

O

+7,000

DS 34

Biphenyl

ISO

F

  

S

O

3,280

  

Bispyribac

ISO

H

  

S

O

2,635

  

Bitertanol

ISO

F

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Borax

ISO

F

  

S

O

4,500

  

Bromacil

ISO

H

  

S

O

5,200

  

Bromobutide

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Bromocyclen

ISO

I,AC

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Bromopropylate

ISO

AC

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Bupirimate

ISO

F

  

S

O

c4,000

  

Buprofezin

ISO

I

  

S

O

2,200

  

Butachlor

ISO

H

  

L

O

3,300

  

Buthiobate

ISO

F

  

L

O

3,200

  

Butopyronoxyl

N(A)

RP 
(insects)

  

L

O

7,840

  

Butralin

ISO

H

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Buturon

ISO

H

  

S

O

3,000

  

Butylate

ISO

F

TC

L

O

+4,000

  

Captan

ISO

F

  

S

O

9,000

Irritant to skin; DS 9; HSG 50

Carbendazim

ISO

F

  

S

O

+10,000

DS 89; EHC 149; HSG 82

Carbetamide

ISO

H

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Carboxin

ISO

FST

  

S

O

3,820

  

Chinomethionat

ISO

AC,F

  

S

O

2,500

  

Chlomethoxyfen

N(B)

H

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Chloramben

ISO

H

  

S

O

5,620

  

Chlorbromuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Chlorbufam

ISO

H

  

S

O

2,500

  

Chlorfenidim

N(U)

          

See monuron

Chlorfluazuron

ISO

IGR

  

S

O

8,500

  

Chlorflurecol

N(B)

          

See chlorflurenol

Chlorflurenol

ISO

PGR

OC

S

O

+10,000

  

Chloridazon

ISO

H

  

S

O

2,420

  

Chlorimuron

N(B)

H

  

S

O

4,102

  

Chlornitrofen

ISO

H

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Chloromethiuron

ISO

Ix

  

S

O

2,500

  

Chloroneb

ISO

H

OC

S

O

+10,000

  

Chloropropylate

ISO

AC

OC

S

O

+5,000

  

Chlorothalonil

ISO

F

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Chlorotoluron

ISO

H

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Chloroxifenidim

N(U)

          

See chloroxuron

Chloroxuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

+3,000

  

Chlorphoxim

ISO

I

OP

S

O

+2,500

DS 32

Chlorpropham

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Chlorpyrifos methyl

ISO

I

OP

L

O

+3,000

DS 33

Chlorsulfuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

5,545

  

Chlorthal-dimethyl

ISO

H

  

S

O

+3,000

  

Chlozolinate

N(B)

F

  

S

O

+4,000

  

Cinmethylin

ISO

H

  

L

O

3,960

  

Cinosulfuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Clofentezine

N(B)

AC

  

S

O

+5,200

  

Clomeprop

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Clonitralide

N(A)

          

See niclosamide

Clopyralid

N(B)

H

  

S

O

4,300

Severe irritant to eyes

Cloxyfonac

ISO

PGR

  

S

O

+5,000

  

CNA

N(J)

          

See dicloran

COMU

N(J)

          

See cycluron

Credazine

N(J)

H

  

S

O

3,090

  

Cryolite

C

I

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Cycloprothrin

ISO

I

PY

L

O

+5,000

  

Cycloxydim

N(B)

H

  

S

O

3,900

  

Cycluron

ISO

H

  

S

O

2,600

  

Cyometrinil

N(B)

H

  

S

O

2,277

  

Cyromazine

ISO

L

  

S

O

3,300

  

Caimuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Dalapon

N(A,B,F)

H

  

S

O

9,330

  

Daminozide

ISO

H

  

S

O

8,400

  

Desmedipham

ISO

H

  

S

O

+9,600

  

Diafenthiuron

ISO

AC

  

S

O

2,068

  

Dichlobenil

ISO

H

  

S

O

3,160

  

Dichlorfenidim

N(U)

          

See diuron

Dichlofluanid

ISO

F

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Dichloropicolinic acid

            

See clopyralid

Diclobutrazol

ISO

F

T

S

O

+4,000

  

Diclomezine

ISO

F

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Dicloran

N(B)

F

  

S

O

4,000

  

Diethatyl

ISO

H

  

S

O

2,300

  

Diethofencarb

ISO

F

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Difenoxuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

+7,750

  

Diflubenzuron

ISO

L

  

S

O

+4,640

DS 77

Diflufenican

N(B)

H

  

S

O

+2,000

  

Dikegulac

ISO

PGR

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Dimefuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

+2,000

  

Dimethirimol

ISO

F

  

S

O

2,350

  

Dimethomorph

ISO

F

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Dimethyl phthalate

C

RP 
(insect)

  

L

O

8,200

  

Dinitramine

ISO

H

  

S

O

3,000

  

Diphenyl

            

See biphenyl

Dipropetryn

ISO

H

T

S

O

4,050

  

Dipropyl isocinchomerate

C

RP (fly)

  

L

O

5,230

  

Disodium octaborate

            

See borax

Ditalmifos

ISO

F

OP

S

O

5,660

Irritant to skin; allergenic

Dithiopyr

ISO

H

    

O

+5,000

  

Diuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

3,400

  

Dodemorph

ISO

H

  

L

O

4,500

  

Eglinazine

ISO

H

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Ethalfluralin

ISO

H

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Ethephon

N(A)

PGR

  

S

O

+4,000

  

Ethidimuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Ethirimol

ISO

FST

  

S

O

6,340

  

Ethofumesate

ISO

H

  

S

O

+6,400

  

Etofenprox

N(B)

I

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Fenarimol

ISO

F

  

S

O

2,500

  

Fenbutatin oxide

ISO

MT

OT

S

O

2,630

EHC 15

Fenchlorazole

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Fenclorim

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Fenfuram

ISO

FST

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Fenidim

N(U)

          

See fenuron

Fenitropan

ISO

F

  

S

O

3,230

  

Fenoxaprop-ethyl

N(B)

H

  

S

O

2,350

  

Fenoxycarb

ISO

I

C

S

O

+10,000

  

Fenpiclonil

ISO

FST

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Fenpropimorph

ISO

F

  

oil

O

3,515

  

Fenuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

6,400

  

Fenuron-TCA

(ISO)

H

  

S

O

4,000

  

Ferbam

ISO

F

TC

S

O

+10,000

  

Flamprop-M

ISO

H

  

S

O

+3,000

  

Fluazifop

ISO

H

P

L

O

3,330

  

Flubenzimine

ISO

AC

  

S

O

3,000

  

Flucycloxuron

ISO

AC

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Flufenoxuron

ISO

I

  

S

O

+3,000

  

Flumetralin

N(B)

PGR

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Flumetsulam

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Fluometuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

+8,000

  

Fluorodifen

ISO

H

  

S

O

9,000

  

Fluoromide

N(J)

F

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Flupropanate

ISO

H

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Flurecol butyl

            

See flurenol

Flurenol

ISO

PGR

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Fluridone

ISO

H

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Flurochloridone

ISO

H

  

S

O

4,000

  

Fluthiacet

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Fluroxypyr

N(B)

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Fluthiacet

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Flutolanil

ISO

F

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Tau-fluvalinate

ISO

I

PY

oil

O

+3,000

Skin and eye irritant

Folpet

ISO

F

  

S

O

+10,000

HSG 72

Fosamine

ISO

H

  

S

O

2,400

  

Fosetyl

N(B)

F

  

S

O

5,800

  

Furmecyclox

N(B)

FST

  

S

O

3,780

  

Gibberellic acid

N(B)

PGR

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Glyphosate

ISO

H

  

S

O

4,230

EHC 159, DS 91

Glyphosine

ISO

H

  

S

O

3,920

  

Continues on next page.


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Published in 62. Minerals and Agricultural Chemicals
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Saturday, 19 February 2011 04:24

The WHO Guidelines to Classification of Pesticides by Hazard (Present Acute Hazard continued)

Table 5. List of of technical products unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use (continued)

Name Status Main use Chemical type Physical state Route LD50 (mg/kg) Remarks

Hexaconazole

N(B)

F

  

S

O

2,180

  

Hexaflumuron

ISO

I

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Hexythiazox

N(B)

AC

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Hydroprene

N(A)

IGR

  

L

O

+10,000

  

2-Hydroxyethyl octyl sulphide

C

RP 
(insect)

  

L

O

8,530

  

Hydroxyisoxazole

N(J)

          

See hymexazol

Hymexazol

N(B)

FST

  

S

O

3,900

  

Imazamethabenz-methyl

(ISO)

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Imazapyr

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

Irritant to eyes

Imazaquin

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Imazethapyr

N(B)

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Imibenconazole

ISO

F

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Inabenfide

ISO

PGR

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Iodofenphos

N(A,B)

          

See jodfenphos

Iprodione

ISO

F

  

S

O

3,500

  

Isopropalin

ISO

H

  

L

O

+5,000

  

Isoxaben

N(B)

H

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Jodfenphos

ISO

I

OP

S

O

2,100

DS 43

Karbutilate

ISO

H

  

S

O

3,000

  

Kasugamycin

N(J)

F

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Kinoprene

ISO

IGR

  

S

O

4,900

  

Lenacil

ISO

H

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Linuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

4,000

  

Maleic hydrazide

ISO

PGR

  

S

O

6,950

  

Mancozeb

ISO

F

TC

S

O

+8,000

Irritant to skin on multiple exposure; DS 94

Maneb

ISO

F

TC

S

O

6,750

Irritant to skin on multiple exposure; DS 94

Mefenacet

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Mepanipyrim

ISO

F

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Mepronil

N(J)

F

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Metamitron

ISO

H

  

S

O

3,343

  

Metazachlor

ISO

H

  

S

O

2,150

  

Methabenzthiazuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

+2,500

  

Methoprene

ISO

IGR

  

L

O

+10,000

DS 47

Methoprotryne

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Methoxychlor

ISO

I

OC

S

O

6,000

DS 28

Methoxyphenone

N(J)

H

  

S

O

+4,000

  

Methyldymron

N(J)

H

  

S

O

3,948

  

Metiram

N(J)

F

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Metobromuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

2,500

  

Metosulam

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Metoxuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

+3,200

  

Metribuzin

ISO

H

T

S

O

2,200

  

Metsulfovax

ISO

F

  

S

O

3,929

  

Metsulfuron

N(A,B)

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Monalide

ISO

H

  

S

O

+4,000

  

Monolinuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

2,250

  

Monuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

3,600

  

Monuron-TCA

N(A)

H

  

S

O

3,700

  

Naphthalene

C

F

  

S

O

2,200

  

Naphthalic anhydride

C

PGR

  

S

O

+10,000

  

2-(1-naphthyl) acetamide

ISO

PGR

  

S

O

6,400

  

1-naphthylacetic acid

ISO

PGR

  

S

O

c3,000

  

Napropamide

ISO

H

  

S

O

5,000

  

Naptalam

ISO

PGR

  

S

O

8,200

  

Neburon

ISO

H

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Niclosamide

ISO

M

  

S

O

5,000

DS 63

Nicosulfuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

Irritant to eyes

Nitralin

ISO

H

  

S

O

+2,000

  

Nitrothal-isopropyl

ISO

F

  

S

O

6,400

  

Norflurazon

ISO

H

  

S

O

+8,000

  

(octylthio)ethanol

C

          

See 2-hydroxyethyl octyl sulphide

Ofurace

ISO

F

  

S

O

2,600

  

Oryzalin

ISO

H

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Oxabetrinil

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Oxadiazon

ISO

H

  

S

O

+8,000

  

Oxine copper

ISO

F

  

S

O

10,000

  

Oxycarboxin

ISO

F

  

S

O

2,000

  

Oxyfluorfen

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Penconazole

N(B)

F

  

S

O

2,120

  

Pencycuron

ISO

F

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Pentanochlor

ISO

H

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Phenisobromolate

N(J)

          

See bromopropylate

Phenisopham

ISO

H

  

S

O

+4,000

  

Phenmedipham

ISO

H

  

S

O

+8,000

  

Phenothrin

ISO

I

PY

L

O

+5,000

DS 85; EHC 96; HSG 32

2-Phenylphenol

ISO

F

  

S

O

2,480

  

Phosdiphen

N(J)

F

  

L

O

6,200

  

Phthalide

N(J)

F

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Picloram

ISO

H

  

S

O

8,200

  

Piperonyl butoxide

N(A)

SY

  

oil

O

+7,500

  

Pretilachlor

ISO

H

  

L

O

6,100

  

Primisulfuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,050

  

Probenazole

N(J)

F

  

S

O

2,030

  

Procymidone

ISO

F

  

S

O

6,800

  

Prodiamine

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Profluralin

ISO

H

  

S

O

c10,000

  

Proglinazine

ISO

H

  

S

O

+8,000

  

Prometon

ISO

H

T

S

O

2,980

  

Prometryn

ISO

H

T

S

O

3,150

  

Pronamide

N(A)

          

See propyzamide

Propamocarb

ISO

F

  

S

O

8,600

  

Propaquizafop

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Propazine

ISO

H

T

S

O

+5,000

  

Propham

ISO

H

  

S

O

5,000

  

Propineb

ISO

H

TC

S

O

8,500

  

Propyzamide

ISO

H

  

S

O

5,620

  

Pyracarbolid

ISO

F

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Pyrazolynate

ISO

H

  

S

O

9,550

  

Pyrazon

N(A)

          

See chloridazon

Pyrazosulfuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Pyrimethanil

ISO

F

  

S

O

4,150

  

Pyriminobac

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Pyriproxyfen

N(B)

I

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Quinclorac

ISO

H

  

S

O

2,680

  

Quinmerac

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Quinomethinoate

N(B)

          

See chinomethionat

Quinonamid

ISO

F

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Quintozene

ISO

F

  

S

O

+10,000

EHC 41

Rimsulfuron

C

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Secbumeton

ISO

H

T

S

O

2,680

  

Siduron

ISO

H

  

S

O

+7,500

  

Simazine

ISO

H

T

S

O

+5,000

  

Sodium metaborate

C

          

See borax

Sodium trichloracetate

            

The data shown refer to sodium trichloroacetic acid. 
In many countries, the term TCA refers 
to the free acid (now accepted by ISO): this 
is a solid with an oral LD50 of 400 mg/kg 
and if used as a pesticide is placed in Class II. 
It is highly corrosive to skin

Solan

N(A)

          

See pentanochlor

Stirofos

N(A)

          

See tetrachlorvinphos

Sulfometuron

N(B)

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Sulfur

N(A,J)

          

See sulphur

Sulphur

ISO

F,I

  

S

O

+3,000

Irritant to skin and mucous membranes. Sulphur dust 
can spontaneously ignite unless diluted about 50% with 
inert material

TCA

ISO

H

  

S

O

3,200

Irritant to skin and eyes; see sodium trichloracetate

Tebuconazole

ISO

F

  

S

O

4,000

  

Tebutam

ISO

H

  

oil

O

6,210

  

Tecnazene

ISO

F

  

S

O

+10,000

EHC 42; HSG 12

Tedion

N(U)

          

See tetradifon

Teflubenzuron

N(B)

I

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Temephos

ISO

I

OP

L

O

8,600

DS 8

Terbacil

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Terbuthylazine

ISO

H

T

S

O

2,160

  

Terbutryn

ISO

H

T

S

O

2,400

  

Tetrachlorvinphos

ISO

I

OP

S

O

4,000

  

Tetradifon

ISO

AC

  

S

O

+10,000

EHC 67; HSG 11

Tetramethrin

ISO

O

PY

S

O

+5,000

EHC 98; HSG 31

Tetrasul

ISO

AC

  

S

O

6,810

  

Thiabendazole

ISO

F

  

S

O

3,330

  

Thidiazuron

ISO

PGR

  

S

O

+4,000

  

Thifensulfuron

N(B)

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Thiophanate

ISO

F

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Thiophanate-methyl

ISO

F

  

S

O

+6,000

  

Tiocarbazil

ISO

H

TC

L

O

10,000

  

Tolclofos-methyl

ISO

F-S

  

S

O

c5,000

  

Tolyfluanid

ISO

F

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Transfluthrin

ISO

I

PY

S

O

+5,000

  

Triasulfuron

ISO

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Tribenuron

N(B)

H

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Trichlamide

ISO

F

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Trietazine

ISO

H

T

S

O

2,830

  

Trifluralin

ISO

H

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Triflumuron

ISO

PGR

  

S

O

+5,000

  

Triforine

ISO

F

  

S

O

+6,000

  

Triticonazole

N(B)

F

triazole

S

O

+2,000

  

Validamycin

N(J)

F

  

S

O

+10,000

  

Vinclozolin

ISO

F

  

S

O

10,000

  

Zineb

ISO

F

  

S

O

+5,000

DS 94

Source: WHO 1996.

 

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Published in 62. Minerals and Agricultural Chemicals
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Saturday, 19 February 2011 04:08

The WHO Guidelines to Classification of Pesticides by Hazard (Obsolete or Discontinued)

Table 6. Technical products not included in the WHO Classification and believed to be obsolete or discontinued for use as pesticides

Allyxycarb
Amidithion
Aramite
Athidithion
Atraton
Azothoate
Barium carbonate
Benodanil
Benquinox
Butacarb
Butam
Butonate
Calcium cyanamide
Carbamorph
Carbanolate
Chloethocarb
Chloraniformethan
Chloranil
Chloranocryl
Chlorbenside
Chlorbicyclen
Chlordecone (EHC 43; HSG 41)
Chlorfenprop-methyl
Chlorfensulphide
Chlorfentezine
Chloromebuform
Chlorquinox
Crimidine
Cyanthoate
Cypendazole
Cypromid
Delachlor
Diamidafos
Dibutyl phthalate
Dibutyl succinate
Dichlozoline
Dimexano

Dinex
Dinocton
Endothion
Erbon
Ethiolate
Ethoate-methyl
Ethyleneglycol
Bis(trichloracetate)
EXD
Fenazaflor
Fluotrimazole
Fosthietan
Fluenetil
Glyodin
Griseofulvin
Halacrinate
Haloxydine
Hexachloroacetone
Hexaflurate
Hydroxyquinoline sulfate
Ipazine
IPSP
Isobenzan
Isobornyl thiocyanoacetate
Isocarbamid
Isocil
Isodrin
Isomethiozin
Isonoruonlisoprothiolane
Kelevan (EHC 66; HSG 2)
Lythidathion
Malonoben
MCC
Mebenil
Mecarbinzid
Mecarphon
Medinoterb acetate

Methacarbate
Methiuron
2-Methoxymethyl mercury chloride (DS 66)
Methylmercury dicyandiamide
Mexacarbate
Mipafox
Mirex (EHC 44; HSG 39)
Morfamquat
Myclozolin
Nitrilacarb
Noruron
Oxapyrazon
Oxydisulfoton
Parafluron
Phenkapton
Phenobenzuron
Phenylmercury dimethyldithiocarbamate
Phosacetim
Potassium cyanate
Propyl isome
Prothiocarb
Proxan
Pydanon
Pyridinitril
Quinacetol-sulfate
Sabadilla
Salicylanilide
Schradan
Swep
TDE
Terbucarb
Thioquinox
Triapenthenol
Triarimol
Tricamba
Trichloronat
Trimethacarb

Source: WHO 1996.

Table 7. List of gaseous or volatile fumigants not classified under the WHO Recommended Classification of Pesticides by Hazard

Acrylonitrile (EHC 28; HSG 1)
Aluminium phosphide (EHC 73; HSG 28)
Carbon disulfide (EHC 10)
Chloropicrin
1,2-Dichloropropane (EHC 146; HSG 76)
1,3-Dichloropropene (EHC 146; HSG 76)
Epoxyethane (ethylene oxide) (EHC 55; HSG 16)
Ethylene dibromide (EHC 177)

Ethylene dichloride (EHC 176)
Ethylene oxide (EHC 55; HSG 16)
Formaldehyde (EHC 89; HSG 57)
Hydrogen cyanide
Magnesium phosphide (EHC 73; HSG 28)
Methyl bromide (DS 5; EHC 166; HSG 86)
Phosphine (DS 46; EHC 73; HSG 28)
Sulfuryl fluoride

Note: The WHO Classification does not set out any criteria for air concentrations on which classification could be based. Most of these compounds are of high hazard and recommended exposure limits for occupational exposure have been adopted by national authorities in many countries.

Source: WHO 1996.

The entries and abbrevations used in the tables’ various columns are explained here under the corresponding heading.

Name

The first column in the tables list the approved name of active ingredients. Trade names are not listed since there are many of these.

Status

The following abbreviations are used:

  • ISO: Indicates the common name approved by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Such names are, when available, preferred by the WHO to all other common names. However, some of these names may not be acceptable for national use in some countries. If the letters ISO appear within parentheses (e.g., with fentin acetate), this indicates that ISO has standardized (or is in the process of standardizing) the name of the base, but not the name of the derivative listed in the “Name” column. (Fentin is an ISO name, but fentin acetate is not.)
  • N( ): Indicates approval by a national ministry or other body, which is shown in parentheses as follows: A: United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), American National Standards Institute (ANSI), the Weed Science Society of America or the Entomological Society of America; B: British Standards Institution or the British Pharmacopoeia Commission; F: Association française de normalisation; J: Japanese Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry; U: Gosudarstvennyi Komitet Standartov, former USSR.
  • C: Chemical, trivial or other common name.

 

Main use

In most cases only a single use is given. This is only for identification purposes and does not exclude other uses. The following abbreviations are used:

  • AC: acaricide
  • AP: aphicide
  • B: bacteriostat (soil)
  • FM: fumigant
  • F: fungicide, other than for seed treatment
  • FST: fungicide, for seed treatment
  • H: herbicide
  • I: insecticide
  • IGR: insect growth regulator
  • Ix: ixodicide (for tick control)
  • L: larvicide
  • M: molluscicide
  • N: nematocide
  • O: other use for plant pathogens
  • PGR: plant growth regulator
  • R: rodenticide
  • RP( ): repellent (species)
  • -S: applied to soil; not used with herbicides or PGRs
  • SY: synergist.

 

Chemical type

A limited number of chemical types are shown in this column. Most have some significance in the sense that they may have a common antidote or may be confused in the nomenclature with other chemical types. For example, thiocarbamates are not cholinesterase inhibitors and do not have the same effects as carbamates. The following abbreviations are used:

  • C: carbamate
  • CNP: chloronitrophenol derivative
  • OC: organochlorine compound
  • OM: organomercury compound
  • OP: organophosphorus compound
  • OT: organotin compound
  • P: pyridyl derivative
  • PA: phenoxyacetic acid derivative
  • PY: pyrethroid
  • T: triazine derivative
  • TC: thiocarbamate.

 

These chemical classification are included only for convenience and do not represent a recommendation on the part of the WHO as to the way in which pesticides should be classified. It should, furthermore, be understood that some pesticides may fall into more than one type.

Chemical type is not shown where it is apparent from the name.

Physical state

This refers only to the technical compound. The following are used:

  • L: liquid, including solids with a melting point below 50C
  • oil: oily liquid; refers to physical state only
  • S: solid, includes waxes.

 

It may happen in a few cases that where the technical product is a solid, highly concentrated liquid formulations may need to be classified in a more hazardous class. In most cases, oils have been classified as liquids unless very viscous at ordinary temperatures.

Route

Oral route values are used unless the dermal route values place the compound in a hazardous class or the dermal values are significantly lower than the oral values, although in the same class. The following abbreviations are used:

  • D: dermal
  • O: oral.

 

LD50 (mg/kg)

The LD50 value is a statistical estimate of the number of mg of toxicant per kg of body weight required to kill 50% of a large population of test animals; the rat is used unless otherwise states. A single value is given: “c” preceding the value indicates that it is a value within a wider than usual range, adopted for classification purposes; “+” preceding the value indicates that the kill at the stated dose was less than 50% of the test animals.

The toxicity data for pyrethroids are highly variable according to isomer ratios, the vehicle for oral administration and the husbandry of the test animals. The variability is reflected in the prefix “c”. The single LD50 value now chosen for classification purposes is based on administration in corn oil and is much lower than that in aqueous solutions. This has resulted in considerable changes in the classification of some products and also underlines the need for classification by formulation if labelling is to reflect true hazard.

The figures in this column are not median values; rather, a safety margin is incorporated by choosing the lower confidence limit in most cases. Where a sex difference occurs in LD50 values, the value for the more sensitive sex is used. A number of classification adjustments have been made in respect of some pesticides and these are explained. A borderline case has been classified in the more or less hazardous class after consideration of its toxicology and use experience.

In table 5, a number of pesticides are listed as unlikely to present any acute hazard in normal use. The WHO Classification is open-ended but it is clear that there must be a point at which the acute hazard posed by the use of these compounds is so low as to be negligible provided that the necessary precautions are taken. For the purposes of this table, it has been assumed that this point is an oral LD50 of 2,000 mg/kg for solids and 3,000 mg/kg for liquids. However, it should not be overlooked that in formulations of these technical products, solvents or vehicles may present a greater hazard than the actual pesticide and therefore classification of a formulation in one of the higher hazard classes may be necessary.

Biological pesticides are not included in the WHO Classification because the methods of the safety testing of live biological agents are not appropriate to classification procedures applied to chemical compounds.

Remarks

Where the classification of a technical product has been adjusted, the basis for this is indicated in this column. Major irritant properties are noted; these do not affect classification. Where the name of a technical product is cross-referenced, the referenced product will be found in the same table. Abbreviations are used to indicate that a WHO/FAO Data Sheet (DS) or an issue of International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) Environmental Health Criteria (EHC) Series or Health and Safety Guide contains further information on the product; the relevant issue numbers follow the abbreviations.

 

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Published in 62. Minerals and Agricultural Chemicals
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Wednesday, 09 February 2011 03:40

Contents Page

CONTENTS

Chapter Editor                                                                                       Gunnar Nordberg

  • General Profile
  • Acknowledgements
  • Aluminium
  • Antimony
  • Arsenic
  • Barium
  • Bismuth
  • Cadmium
  • Chromium
  • Copper
  • Iron
  • Gallium
  • Germanium
  • Indium
  • Iridium
  • Lead
  • Magnesium
  • Manganese
  • Metal Carbonyls (especially Nickel Carbonyl)
  • Mercury
  • Molybdenum
  • Nickel
  • Niobium
  • Osmium
  • Palladium
  • Platinum
  • Rhenium
  • Rhodium
  • Ruthenium
  • Selenium
  • Silver
  • Tantalum
  • Tellurium
  • Thallium
  • Tin
  • Titanium
  • Tungsten
  • Vanadium
  • Zinc
  • Zirconium and Hafnium

 

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Published in 63. Metals: Chemical Properties and Toxicity
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Wednesday, 09 February 2011 04:02

General Profile

This chapter presents a series of short discussions of many metals. It contains a tabulation of major health effects, physical properties and physical and chemical hazards associated with these metals and many of their compounds (see table 1 and table 2). Not every metal is covered in this chapter. Cobalt and beryllium, for example, appear in the chapter Respiratory sytem. Other metals are discussed in more detail in articles that present information on the industries in which they predominate. The radioactive elements are discussed in the chapter Radiation, ionizing.

Table 1. Physical and chemical hazards

Chemical name

CAS-number

Molecular formula

Physical and chemical hazards

UN class/div/
subsidiary risks

Aluminium chloride 
7446-70-0

AICI3

  

8

Aluminium hydroxide
21645-51-2

AI(OH)3
  • Forms gels (Al2·3H2O) on prolonged contact with water; absorbs acids and carbon dioxide
  

Aluminium nitrate 
13473-90-0

Al2(NO3)3

  

5.1

Aluminium phosphide 
20859-73-8

AlP
  • Reacts with moist air, water, acids producing highly toxic fumes of phosphine
  • Reacts with water, moist air, acids causing fire and toxic (phosphine fumes) hazard

4.3/ 6.1

Diethylaluminium chloride 
96-10-6

AlClC4H10

  

4.2

Ethylaluminium dichloride
563-43-9

AlCl2C2H5

  

4.2

Ethylaluminium 
sesquichloride 
12075-68-2

Al2Cl3C6H15

  

4.2

Sodium aluminate 
1302-42-7

  
  • The substance is a strong base, it reacts violently with acid and is corrosive
  • The solution in water is a strong base, it reacts violently with acid and is corrosive to aluminium and zinc

8

Triethylaluminium 
97-93-8

AlC6H15

  

4.2

Triisobutylaluminium
100-99-2

AlC12H27

  

4.2

Antimony 
7440-36-0

Sb
  • On combustion, forms toxic fumes (antimony oxides) 
  • Reacts violently with strong oxidants (e.g., halogens, alkali permanganates and nitrates), causing fire and explosion hazard 
  • Reacts with nascent hydrogen in acid medium producing very toxic gas 
  • On contact with hot concentrated acids, emits toxic gas (stibine)

6.1

Antimony pentachloride 
7647-18-9

SbCl5

  

8

Antimony pentafluoride 
7783-70-2

SbF5

  

3/ 6.1

Antimony potassium tartrate
28300-74-5

Sb2K2C8H4O12 ·
3H2O

  

6.1

Antimony trichloride 
10025-91-9

SbCl3

  

8

Antimony trioxide 
1309-64-4

Sb2O3
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of antimony
  • Reacts under certain circumstances with hydrogen producing a very poisonous gas, stibine
  

Stibine 
7803-52-3

SbH3
  • The substance decomposes slowly at room temperature producing metallic antimony and hydrogen
  • Reacts violently with ozone and concentrated nitric 
acid causing fire and explosion hazard 
  • The substance decomposes on heating 
producing toxic fumes of antimony 
  • The gas is heavier than air and may travel along the ground; distant ignition possible

2.3/ 2.1

Arsenic 
7440-38-2

As
  • Reacts with acids, oxidants, halogens 
  • The substance produces toxic fumes

6.1

Arsenic acid, copper salt
10103-61-4

CuAsOH4
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of arsenic by comparation with another compounds 
  • Reacts with acids releasing toxic arsine gas
  

Arsenic acid, 
diammonium salt
7784-44-3

(NH4)2AsOH4
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes including arsenic, nitrogen oxides and ammonia 
  • Reacts with acids producing toxic fumes of arsenic 
  • Attacks many metals, such as iron, aluminium and zinc, in presence of water releasing toxic fumes of arsenic and arsine
  

Arsenic acid, 
disodium salt 
7778-43-0

Na2AsOH4
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of arsenic
  • Reacts with acids releasing toxic arsine gas 
  • Attacks many metals, such as iron, aluminium and zinc, in presence of water releasing toxic fumes of arsenic and arsine
  

Arsenic acid, 
magnesium salt 
10103-50-1

MgxAsO3H4
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of arsenic 
  • Reacts with acids releasing toxic fumes of arsine gas

6.1

Arsenic acid, 
monopotassium salt 
7784-41-0

KAsO2H4
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of arsenic 
  • Reacts with acids releasing toxic arsine gas 
  • Attacks many metals, such as iron, aluminium and zinc, in presence of water releasing toxic fumes of arsenic and arsine
  

Arsenic pentoxide
1303-28-2

As2O5
  • The substance decomposes on heating above 300 °C producing toxic fumes (arsenic trioxide) and oxygen 
  • The solution in water is a medium strong acid, which may react with reducing substances producing very toxic gas (arsine) 
  • Reacts violently with bromine pentafluoride causing fire and explosion hazard 
  • Corrosive to metals in the presence of moisture

6.1

Arsenic trioxide 
1327-53-3

As2O3
  • The substance is a strong reducing agent and reacts with oxidants 
  • The solution in water is a weak acid which may react with reducing substances producing very toxic gas (arsine) 
  • Gives off toxic fumes in a fire

6.1

Arsenious acid, 
copper(2+) salt(1:1)
10290-12-7

CuAsH3
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of arsenic 
  • Reacts with acids releasing toxic fumes of arsine gas

6.1

Arsenious acid, lead(II) salt
10031-13-7

PbAs2O4
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing very toxic fumes of arsenic and lead
  • Reacts with oxidants · Reacts violently with strong acids
  

Arsenious acid, 
potassium salt 
10124-50-2

(KH3)x AsO3
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of arsenic and potassium oxide
  • Reacts with acids releasing toxic arsine gas 
  • Decomposes on contact with air (by atmospheric carbon dioxide) and through the skin

6.1

Arsenous trichloride 
7784-34-1

AsCl3
  • The substance decomposes on heating and under influence of light producing toxic fumes of hydrogen chloride and arsenic oxides 
  • Reacts violently with bases, strong oxidants and water, causing fire and toxic hazard 
  • On contact with air it emits corrosive fumes of hydrogen chloride
  • Attacks many metals forming combustible gas (hydrogen) in presence of moisture

6.1

Arsine 
7784-42-1

AsH3
  • The substance decomposes on heating and under influence of light and moisture producing toxic arsenic fumes 
  • Reacts violently with strong oxidants, fluorine, chlorine, nitric acid, nitrogen trichloride, causing fire and explosion hazard 
  • The gas is heavier than air and may travel along the ground; distant ignition possible 
  • As a result of flow, agitation, etc., electrostatic charges can be generated, conductivity not checked

2.3/ 2.1

Calcium arsenate 
7778-44-1

Ca3As2O8
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of arsenic 
  • Reacts with acids releasing toxic arsine gas

6.1

Lead arsenate 
7784-40-9

PbAsO4H
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of lead, arsenic and its compounds, including arsine

6.1

Methylarsonic acid 
124-58-3

AsCH503
  • The substance decomposes on heating or on burning producing toxic fumes (arsenic oxides)
  • The solution in water is a medium strong acid, which may react with reducing substances, active metals (i.e., iron, aluminium, zinc) producing toxic gas (methylarsine)
  

Sodium arsenate
10048-95-0

Na2AsO4H ·7H2O
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes including arsenic, arsenic oxides
  • Reacts violently with strong oxidants, strong acids and metals such as iron, aluminium and zinc causing explosion and toxic hazard

6.1

Barium 
7440-39-3

Ba
  • The substance may spontaneously ignite on contact with air (if in powder form)
  • The substance is a strong reducing agent and reacts violently with oxidants and acids
  • Reacts with water, forming combustible gas (hydrogen) and barium hydroxide 
  • Reacts violently with halogenated solvents causing fire and explosion hazard

4.3

Barium carbonate 
513-77-9

BaCO3

  

6.1

Barium chlorate 
13477-00-4

BaCl2O6
  • Heating may cause violent combustion or explosion 
  • Shock-sensitive compounds are formed with organic compounds, reducing agents, ammonia-containing agents, metal powders, and sulphuric acid 
  • The substance decomposes violently on warming, on heating and on burning producing oxygen and toxic fumes, causing fire and explosion hazard
  • The substance is a strong oxidant and reacts with combustible and reducing materials
  • Dust explosion possible if in powder or granular form, mixed with air

5.1/ 6.1

Barium chloride 
10361-37-2

BaCl2
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes

6.1

Barium chloride, dihydrate 
10326-27-9

BaCl2·2H20
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes

6.1

Barium 
chromate (VI) 
10294-40-3

BaCrH2O4

  

6.1

Barium hydroxide 
17194-00-2

Ba(OH)2

  

6.1

Barium nitrate 
10022-31-8

BaNO3

  

5.1/ 6.1

Barium oxide 
1304-28-5

BaO
  • The solution in water is a medium strong base 
  • Reacts violently with water, hydrogen sulphide, hydroxylamine, and sulphur trioxide, causing fire and explosion hazard

6.1

Barium perchlorate 
13465-95-7

BaCl2O8

  

5.1/ 6.1

Barium peroxide 
1304-29-6

BaO2
  • The substance can presumably form explosive peroxides 
  • The substance is a strong oxidant and reacts with combustible and reducing materials 
  • The substance is a strong reducing agent and reacts with oxidants 
  • Reacts with water and acids forming hydrogen peroxide and barium oxide 
  • Mixtures with organic substances may be ignited or exploded on shock, friction or concussion

5.1/ 6.1

Barium sulphate 
7727-43-7

BaSO4
  • The substance emits toxic fumes of sulphur oxides when heated to 
decomposition 
  • Reduction of barium sulphate by aluminium is attended by violent explosions

6.1

Beryllium 
7440-41-7

Be

  

6.1

Beryllium oxide 
1304-56-9

BeO

  

6.1

Cadmium 
7440-43-9

Cd
  • Reacts with acids giving off flammable hydrogen gas 
  • Dust reacts with oxidants, hydrogen azide, zinc, selenium or tellurium, causing fire and explosion hazard
  • Dust explosion possible if in powder or granular form, mixed with air
  

Cadmium acetate 
543-90-8

Cd(C2H4O2)2

  

6.1

Cadmium chloride 
10108-64-2

CdCl2
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing very toxic fumes of cadmium and chlorine
  • Solution in water is a weak acid · Reacts with strong oxidants
  • Reacts violently with fluoride, bromide and potassium and acids

6.1

Cadmium oxide 
1306-19-0

CdO
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of cadmium
  • Reacts violently with magnesium when heated causing fire and explosion hazard
  • Reacts with acids, oxidants

6.1

Cadmium suphate 
10124-36-4

CdSO4

  

6.1

Cadmium sulphide 
1306-23-6

CdS
  • Upon heating, toxic fumes are formed 
  • Reacts with strong oxidants 
  • Reacts with acids forming toxic gas (hydrogen sulphide) 
  • Gives off toxic fumes in a fire

6.1

Ammonium dichromate(VI)
7789-09-5

(NH4)2Cr2H2O7

  

5.1

Chromic acid 
7738-94-5

CrH2O4

  

8

Chromium 
7440-47-3

Cr

  

5.1

Chromium trioxide 
1333-82-0

CrO3

  

5.1

Chromyl chloride 
14977-61-8

CrO2Cl2
  • The substance decomposes violently on contact with water producing toxic and corrosive fumes (hydrochloric acid, chlorine, chromium trioxide and chromium trichloride) 
  • The substance is a strong oxidant and reacts violently with combustible and reducing materials 
  • Reacts violently with water, non-metal halides, non-metal hydrides, ammonia and certain common solvents such as alcohol, ether, acetone, turpentine, causing fire and explosion hazard 
  • Attacks many metals in presence of water 
  • Incompatible with plastics 
  • Can ignite combustible substances

8

Cobalt 
7440-48-4

Co
  • Reacts with strong oxidants (e.g., fused ammonium nitrate) causing fire and explosion hazard
  • Certain forms of cobalt metal powder can ignite spontaneously on contact with oxygen or air (pyrophoric) 
  • Can promote decomposition of various organic substances
  

Cobalt chloride 
7646-79-9

CoCl2
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of chlorine and cobalt 
  • Reacts violently with alkali metals such as potassium or sodium causing fire and explosion hazard
  

Cobalt (III) oxide 
1308-04-9

Co2O3
  • Reacts violently with hydrogen peroxide 
  • Reacts with reducing agents
  

Cobalt naphthenate 
61789-51-3

CoC22H20O4
  • Upon heating, toxic fumes are formed 
  • As a result of flow, agitation, etc., electrostatic charges can be generated 
  • Dust explosion possible if in powder or granular form, mixed with air
  

Copper 
7440-50-8

Cu
  • Shock-sensitive compounds are formed with acetylenic compounds, ethylene oxides and azides 
  • Reacts with strong oxidants like chlorates, bromates and iodates, causing explosion hazard
  

Copper (I) oxide 
1317-39-1

Cu2O
  • Reacts with acids to form cupric salts · Corrodes aluminium
  

Cupric acetate 
142-71-2

CuC4H6O4

  

6.1

Cupric chloride 
7447-39-4

CuCl2

  

8

Cupric hydroxide 
120427-59-2

Cu(OH)2

  

6.1

Naphthenic acid, Cu-salt
1338-02-9

  
  • On combustion, forms toxic gases
  

Ferric chloride 
7705-08-0

FeCl3

  

8

Iron pentacarbonyl 
13463-40-6

C5FeO5

  

6.1/ 3

Lead 
7439-92-1

Pb
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes including lead oxides
  • The substance is a strong reducing agent
  

Lead acetate 
301-04-2

PbC4H6O4
  • The substance decomposes on heating and on burning producing toxic and corrosive fumes including lead, acetic acid 
  • Reacts violently with bromates, phosphates, carbonates, phenols 
  • Reacts with acids producing corrosive acetic acid

6.1

Lead chromate 
7758-97-6

PbCrO4
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes including lead oxides
  • Reacts with strong oxidants, hydrogen peroxide, sodium and potassium
  • Reacts with aluminium dinitronaphthalene, iron (III) hexacyanoferrate(IV)
  • Reacts with organics at elevated temperature causing fire hazard
  

Lead nitrate 
10099-74-8

Pb(NO3)2

  

5.1/ 6.1

Lead dioxide 
1309-60-0

PbO2

  

5.1

Lead(II) oxide 
1317-36-8

PbO
  • Reacts violently with strong oxidants, aluminium powder and sodium 
  • Upon heating, toxic fumes of lead compounds are formed
  

Naphthenic acid, Pb-salt
61790-14-5

  
  • On combustion, forms toxic fumes including lead oxide
  

Tetraethyl lead 
78-00-2

PbC8H20
  • The substance decomposes on heating above 110 °C and under influence of light producing toxic fumes: carbon monoxide, lead 
  • Reacts violently with strong oxidants, acids, halogens, oils and fats causing fire and explosion hazard 
  • Attacks rubber and some plastics and coatings
  • The vapour is heavier than air

6.1

Tetramethyl lead 
75-74-1

PbC4H12

  

6.1

Lithium aluminium hydride
16853-85-3

LiAlH4

  

4.3

Magnesium 
7439-95-4

Mg
  • The substance may spontaneously ignite on contact with air or moisture producing irritating or poisonous gases including magnesium oxide 
  • Reacts violently with strong oxidants 
  • Reacts violently with many substances causing fire and explosion hazard
  • Reacts with acids or water forming flammable hydrogen gas, causing fire and explosion hazard
  • Dust explosion possible if in powder or granular form, mixed with air

4.1

Magnesium chloride 
7786-30-3

MgCl2
  • The substance decomposes when slowly heated to 300 °C producing chlorine
  • Dissolution in water liberates a considerable amount of heat

5.1

Magnesium nitrate 
10377-60-3

Mg(NO3)2

  

5.1

Magnesium oxide 
1309-48-4

MgO
  • Readily absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide when exposed to air 
  • Reacts vigorously with halogens and strong acids
  

Magnesium phosphide
12057-74-8

Mg3P2
  • Reacts with water, air moisture, acids producing highly toxic fumes of phosphine
  • Reacts with water, air moisture, violently with acids causing fire and toxic (phosphine fumes) hazard

4.3/ 6.1

Mercuric acetate
1600-27-7

HgC4H6O4
  • The substance decomposes on heating and under influence of light producing toxic fumes of mercury or mercuric oxide

6.1

Mercuric bromide 
7789-47-1

HgBr2

  

6.1

Mercuric chloride 
7487-94-7

HgCl2
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic vapours of mercury and chloride
  • Reacts with light metals · Incompatible with formates, sulphites, hypophosphites, phosphates, sulphides, albumin, gelatin, alkalies, alkaloid salts, ammonia, lime water, antimony and arsenic, bromide, borax, carbonate, iron, copper, lead, silver salts

6.1

Mercuric nitrate 
10045-94-0

Hg(NO3)2
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes (mercury, nitrogen oxides), or on exposure to light 
  • The substance is a strong oxidant and reacts violently with combustible and reducing materials 
  • Reacts with acetylene, alcohol, phosphine and sulphur to form shock-sensitive compounds 
  • Attacks most metals when in solution
  • Vigorous reaction with petroleum hydrocarbons

6.1

Mercuric oxide 
21908-53-2

HgO
  • The substance decomposes on exposure to light, on heating above 500 °C, or on burning under influence of light producing highly toxic fumes including mercury and oxygen, which increases fire hazard 
  • Upon heating, toxic fumes are formed 
  • Reacts violently with chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, hypophosphorous acid, hydrazine hydrate, magnesium (when heated), disulphur dichloride and hydrogen trisulphide
  • Reacts explosively with acetyl nitrate, butadiene, ethanol, iodine 
(at 35 °C), chlorine, hydrocarbons, diboron tetrafluoride, hydrogen peroxide, traces of nitric acid, reducing agents 
  • Incompatible with reducing agents

6.1

Mercuric sulphate 
7783-35-9

HgSO4
  • The substance decomposes on heating  or on exposure to light producing toxic fumes of mercury and sulphur oxides 
  • Reacts with water producing insoluble basic mercuric sulphate and sulphuric acid 
  • Reacts violently with hydrogen chloride

6.1

Mercuric thiocyanate 
592-85-8

HgC2N2S2

  

6.1

Mercurous chloride 
10112-91-1

Hg2Cl2
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of chlorine and mercury, or on exposure to sunlight producing metallic mercury and mercuric chloride 
  • Reacts with bromides, iodides, sulphates, sulphites, carbonates, alkali chlorides, hydroxides, cyanides, lead salts, silver salts, soap, sulphides, copper salts, hydrogen peroxide, lime water, iodoform, ammonia, iodine
  

Mercury 
7439-97-6

Hg
  • Reacts violently with acetylene, chlorine, and ammonia 
  • Attacks copper and copper alloy materials 
  • Incompatible with acetylenes and ammonia gases 
  • Toxic vapours are formed on heating

6.1

Phenylmercuric acetate 
62-38-4

C8H8HgO2
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic vapours of mercury

6.1

Phenylmercuric nitrate 
55-68-5

C6H5HgNO3
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing mercury vapours and other toxic fumes
  • Reacts with reducing agents

6.1

Nickel 
7440-02-0

Ni
  • Reacts with strong oxidants 
  • Reacts violently, in powder form, with titanium powder and potassium perchlorate, and oxidants such as ammonium nitrate, causing fire and explosion hazard 
  • Reacts slowly with non-oxidizing acids and more rapidly with oxidizing acids 
  • Toxic gases and vapours (such as nickel carbonyl) may be released in a fire involving nickel 
  • Dust explosion possible if in powder or granular form, mixed with air
  

Nickel (II) oxide 
1313-99-1

NiO
  • Reacts violently with iodine and hydrogen sulphide causing fire and explosion hazard
  

Nickel carbonate 
3333-67-3

Ni2CO3
  • The substance decomposes on heating and on contact with acids producing carbon dioxide 
  • Reacts violently with aniline, hydrogen sulphide, flammable solvents, hydrazine and metal powders, especially zinc, aluminium and magnesium, causing fire and explosion hazard
  

Nickel carbonyl 
13463-39-3

NiC4O4
  • May explode on heating at 60 °C 
  • The substance may spontaneously ignite on contact with air
  • The substance decomposes on heating at 180 °C on contact with acids producing highly toxic carbon monoxide 
  • Reacts violently with oxidants, acids and bromine 
  • Reacts violently with oxidants causing fire and explosion hazard 
  • Oxidizes in air forming deposits which become peroxidized causing fire hazard 
  • The vapour is heavier than air and may travel along the ground; distant ignition possible

6.1/ 3

Nickel sulphide 
12035-72-2

Ni3S2
  • The substance decomposes on heating to high temperatures producing sulphur oxides
  

Nickel sulphate 
7786-81-4

NiSO4
  • The substance decomposes on heating at 848 °C, producing toxic fumes of 
sulphur trioxide and nickel monoxide 
  • The solution in water is a weak acid
  

Osmium tetroxide 
20816-12-0

OsO4
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing fumes of osmium 
  • The substance is a strong oxidant and reacts with combustible and reducing materials
  • Reacts with hydrochloric acid to form toxic chlorine gas 
  • Forms unstable compounds with alkalis

6.1

Platinum tetrachloride 
13454-96-1

PtCl4
  • On combustion, forms corrosive gases such as chlorine 
  • The substance decomposes on heating or on burning producing toxic fumes (chlorine) 
  • Reacts with strong oxidants
  

Hydrogen selenide 
7783-07-5

SeH2
  • The substance decomposes on heating above 100 °C producing toxic and flammable products including selenium and hydrogen 
  • The substance is a strong reducing agent and reacts violently with oxidants causing fire and explosion hazard 
  • On contact with air it emits toxic and corrosive fumes of selenium dioxide 
  • The gas is heavier than air and may travel along the ground; distant ignition possible

2.3/ 2.1

Selenious acid 
7783-00-8

SeH2O3
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing water and toxic fumes of selenium oxides
  • Reacts on contact with acids producing toxic gaseous hydrogen selenide
  

Selenious acid, disodium salt
10102-18-8

Na2SeO3
  • On contact with hot surfaces or flames this substance decomposes forming toxic gases
  • The solution in water is a medium strong base 
  • Reacts with water, strong acids causing toxic hazard

6.1

Selenium 
7782-49-2

Se
  • Upon heating, toxic fumes are formed 
  • Reacts violently with oxidants and strong acids 
  • Reacts with water at 50 °C forming flammable hydrogen and selenious acids 
  • Reacts with incandescence on gentle heating with phosphorous and metals such as nickel, zinc, sodium, potassium, platinum

6.1

Selenium dioxide 
7446-08-4

SeO2
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of selenium
  • The solution in water is a medium strong acid (selenious acid) 
  • Reacts with many substances giving off toxic vapours (selenium) 
  • Attacks many metals in presence of water
  

Selenium hexafluoride 
7783-79-1

SeF6
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic and corrosive fumes including hydrogen fluoride, fluoride and selenium

2.3/ 8

Selenium oxychloride 
7791-23-3

SeOCl2
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of chloride and selenium
  • The solution in water is a strong acid, it reacts violently with bases and is corrosive
  • Reacts violently with white phosphorus and potassium causing fire and explosion hazard
  • Reacts violently with metal oxides

3/ 6.1

Selenium trioxide 
13768-86-0

SeO3
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of selenium
  • The substance is a strong oxidant and reacts with combustible and reducing materials
  • The solution in water is a strong acid, it reacts violently with bases and is corrosive
  • Reacts violently with water giving off selenic acid 
  • Attacks many metals when moisture is present
  

Silver 
7440-22-4

Ag
  • Shock-sensitive compounds are formed with acetylene 
  • Finely divided silver and strong hydrogen peroxide solution may explode (violent decomposition to oxygen gas) 
  • Contact with ammonia may cause formation of compounds that are explosive when dry 
  • Readily reacts with diluted nitric acid, hot concentrated sulphuric acid
  

Silver nitrate 
7761-88-8

AgNO3
  • Shock-sensitive compounds are formed with acetylene, alcohol, phosphine and sulphur
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes (nitrogen oxides) 
  • The substance is a strong oxidant and reacts violently with combustible and reducing materials
  • Reacts with incompatible substances such as acetylene, alkalis, halides and other compounds causing fire and explosion hazard 
  • Attacks some forms of plastics, rubber and coatings 
  • The substance decomposes on contact with organic contaminants when exposed to light

5.1

Strontium chromate 
7789-06-2

SrCrH2O4
  • The substance decomposes on burning producing toxic fumes 
  • Reacts violently with hydrazine
  • Incompatible with combustible, organic or other readily oxidizable materials such as paper, wood, sulphur, aluminium, plastics
  

Tellurium 
13494-80-9

Te
  • Upon heating, toxic fumes are formed
  • Reacts vigorously with halogens or interhalogens causing flames hazard 
  • Reacts with zinc with incandescence
  • Lithium silicide attacks tellurium with incandescence

6.1

Tellurium hexafluoride 
7783-80-4

TeF6

  

2.3/ 8

Thallium 
7440-28-0

Tl
  • Reacts violently with fluorine 
  • Reacts with halogens at room temperature
  • Incompatible with strong acids, strong oxidants, and oxygen 
  • The substance forms toxic compounds on contact with moisture

6.1

Thallous sulphate 
7446-18-6

Tl2 (SO4)3
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing highly toxic fumes of thallium and sulphur oxides

6.1

Thorium 
7440-29-1

Th

  

7

Di-N-Butyltin dichloride 
683-18-1

SnCl2C8H18

  

6.1

Di-N-Dibutyltin oxide 
818-08-6

C8H18SnO
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes of tin, tin oxides
  • Reacts with oxidants 
  • Dust explosion possible if in powder or granular form, mixed with air
  • If dry, it can be charged electrostatically by swirling, pneumatic transport, pouring, etc.
  

Dibutyltin dilaurate 
77-58-7

SnC32H64O4

  

6.1

Stannic chloride 
7646-78-8

SnCl4
  • The vapour is heavier than air 
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing toxic fumes
  • Reacts violently with water forming corrosive hydrochloric acid and tin oxide fumes 
  • Reacts with turpentine 
  • Attacks many metals, some forms of plastics, rubber and coatings 
  • Contact with alcohol and amines may cause fire and explosion hazard 
  • Reacts with moist air to form hydrochloric acid

8

Stannic oxide 
18282-10-5

SnO
  • Reacts violently with chlorine trifluoride 
  • Contact with hydrogen trisulphide causes violent decomposition and ignition 
  • Violently reduced by magnesium on heating, with fire and explosion hazard
  

Stannous chloride 
7772-99-8

SnCl2
  • Upon heating, toxic fumes are formed 
  • The substance is a strong reducing agent and reacts violently with oxidants 
  • Reacts violently with bromine trifluoride, sodium and nitrates
  

Stannous chloride dihydrate
10025-69-1

SnCl2 ·2H2O
  • The substance is a strong reducing agent and reacts violently with oxidants
  • Upon heating, toxic and corrosive fumes are formed 
  • The substance absorbs oxygen from air and forms insoluble oxychloride
  

Stannous fluoride 
7783-47-3

SnF2
  • Reacts with acids; hydrogen fluoride fumes may be formed 
  • Reacts violently with 
chlorine 
  • Incompatible with alkaline substances and oxidizing agents
  

Tin oxide 
21651-19-4

SnO
  • On heating at 300 °C in air, oxidation to stannic oxide proceeds incandescently
  • Ignites in nitrous oxide at 400 °C and incandesces when heated in sulphur dioxide
  

Titanium tetrachloride 
7550-45-0

TiCl4

  

8

Titanium trichloride 
7705-07-9

TiCl3

  

8

Vanadium pentoxide 
1314-62-1

V2O5
  • Upon heating, toxic fumes are formed 
  • Acts as a catalyst in oxidation reactions

6.1

Vanadium tetrachloride 
7632-51-1

VCl4

  

8

Vanadium trioxide 
1314-34-7

V2O3
  • Ignites on heating in air 
  • The substance decomposes on heating or on burning producing irritating and toxic fumes (vanadium oxides)

6.1

Vanadyl trichloride 
7727-18-6

VOCl3

  

8

Zinc 
7440-66-6

Zn

  

4.3/ 4.2

Zinc chloride 
7646-85-7

ZnCl2

  

8

Zinc nitrate 
7779-88-6

Zn(NO3)2

  

1.5

Zinc phosphide 
1314-84-7

Zn3P2
  • The substance decomposes on heating and on contact with acids or water producing toxic and flammable fumes of phosphorous and zinc oxides, and phosphine 
  • Reacts violently with strong oxidants causing fire hazard

4.3/ 6.1

Zinc stearate 
557-05-1

ZnC36H70O4
  • The substance decomposes on heating producing acrid smoke and fumes of zinc oxide
  • Dust explosion possible if in powder or granular form, mixed with air 
  • If dry, it can be charged electrostatically by swirling, pneumatic transport, pouring, etc.
  

The data on physical and chemical hazards are adapted from the International Chemical Safety Cards (ICSC) series produced by the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), a cooperative programme of the World Health Organization (WHO), the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
The risk classification data are taken from Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods, 9th edition, developed by the United Nations Committee of Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods and published by the United Nations (1995).
In the UN risk classification, the following codes are used: 1.5 = very insensitive substances which have a mass explosion hazard; 2.1 = flammable gas; 2.3 = toxic gas; 
3 = flammable liquid; 4.1 = flammable solid; 4.2 = substance liable to spontaneous combustion; 4.3 = substance which in contact with water emits flammable gases; 
5.1 = oxidizing substance; 6.1 = toxic; 7 = radioactive; 8 = corrosive substance.

Table 2. Health hazards

Chemical 
name 
CAS-Number

Short-term 
exposure

Long-term
exposure

Routes of 
exposure

Symptoms

Target organs, routes 
of entry

Symptoms

Aluminium phosphide
20859-73-8

Eyes; skin; resp. tract

  

Inhalation


Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
cough, dizziness, dullness, headache, 
laboured breathing, nausea, sore throat
Redness, pain 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, convulsions, nausea, 
unconsciousness, vomiting

    

Antimony
7440-36-0

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs; heart

Skin; lungs; resp. tract

Inhalation


Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, fever, shortness of breath, 
vomiting, soreness of upper respiratory 
tract; See Ingestion
Redness 
Redness, pain, conjunctivitis 
Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
diarrhoea, nausea, shortness of breath, 
vomiting, cardiac arrhythmias

Resp sys; CVS; skin; eyes 
Inh; ing; con

Irrit eyes, skin, nose, throat, mouth; cough; dizz; head; nau, vomit, diarr; stomach cramps; insom; anor; unable to smell properly

Antimony
trioxide 
1309-64-4

Eyes; skin; resp. tract

Skin; lungs

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, fever, nausea, sore throat, 
vomiting 
Redness, pain, blisters 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, sore throat, 
vomiting, burning sensation

    

Stibine 
7803-52-3

Blood; kidneys; liver; CNS

  

Inhalation

Abdominal pain, headache, nausea, 
shortness of breath, vomiting, 
weakness, weak and irregular pulse, 
haematuria, shock

Blood; liver; kidneys; resp. sys. 
Inh

Head, weak; nau, abdom pain; lumbar pain, hemog, hema, hemolytic anemia; jaun; pulm irrit

Arsenic 
7440-38-2

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; liver; kidneys; 
GI tract

Skin; liver; CNS; carcinogenic; may cause reproductive toxicity

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Chest pain, abdominal pain, cough, 
headache, weakness, giddiness 
May be absorbed, irritating 
Redness, irritating 
Diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting

Liver; kidneys; skin; lungs; lymphatic sys (lung & lymphatic cancer) 
Inh; abs; con; ing

Ulceration of nasal septum, derm, 
GI disturbances, peri neur, resp irrit, hyperpig of skin, (carc)

Arsenic acid,
copper salt 
10103-61-4

Eyes; resp. tract; CNS; digestive tract

Skin; PNS; mucous membranes; liver

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
weakness; See Ingestion
May be absorbed 
Redness pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
burning sensation behind breastbone 
and in the mouth

    

Arsenic acid,
diammonium 
salt 
7784-44-3

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; CNS; digestive tract; circulatory system

PNS; skin; mucous membranes; liver

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
weakness; See Ingestion
May be absorbed, soluble, redness, pain
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
burning sensation behind breastbone 
and in the mouth

    

Arsenic acid, 
disodium salt 
7778-43-0

Eyes;skin; resp. tract; CNS; digestive tract; circulatory system

PNS; skin; mucous membranes; liver

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
weakness; See Ingestion
May be absorbed, soluble, redness, pain 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
burning sensation behind breastbone 
and in the mouth

    

Arsenic acid,
magnesium 
salt 
10103-50-1

Eyes; resp. tract; CNS; digestive tract; circulatory system

PNS; skin; mucous membranes; liver

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
weakness; See Ingestion
May be absorbed 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
burning sensation behind breastbone 
and in the mouth

    

Arsenic acid, 
mono-
potassium 
salt
7784-41-0

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; mucous 
mem-
branes

Skin; PNS; mucous membranes; liver

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
weakness; See Ingestion
May be absorbed, redness, pain
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
diarrhoea, vomiting

    

Arsenic 
pentoxide 
1303-28-2

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; kidneys; liver; CVS; CNS; blood

Lungs; skin; bone marrow; CVS; CNS; carcinogenic; may cause reproductive toxicity

Inhalation



Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, headache, dizziness, weakness
shortness of breath, pain in chest, 
symptoms may be delayed; 
See Ingestion
Redness, skin burns, pain
Redness, pain, conjunctivitis
Constriction in throat, vomiting, 
abdominal pain, diarrhoea, severe thirst, 
muscular cramps, shock

    

Arsenic 
trioxide 
1327-53-3

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; kidneys; liver; CVS; CNS; hemato-
poietic

Lungs; skin; bone marrow; PNS; CNS; CVS; heart; kidneys; liver; carcinogenic; may cause birth defects

Inhalation



Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, dizziness, headache, shortness 
of breath, weakness, pain in chest, 
symptoms may be delayed; 
See Ingestion
Redness, pain 
Redness, pain, conjunctivitis 
Constriction in throat, abdominal pain, 
diarrhoea, vomiting, severe thirst, 
muscular cramps, shock

    

Arsenious acid, copper (2+) salt (1:1)
10290-12-7

Eyes; skin; resp. tract.; CNS; digestive tract; circulatory system

Skin; PNS; mucous membranes; liver

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
weakness; See Ingestion
May be absorbed 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
burning sensation behind breastbone 
and in the mouth

    

Arsenious 
acid, lead (II)
salt 
10031-13-7

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; CNS; GI tract; circulatory system

Skin; PNS; mucous membranes; liver

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
weakness; See Ingestion
Redness, pain 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
burning sensation behind breastbone 
and in the mouth

    

Arsenious 
acid, 
potassium 
salt 
10124-50-2

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; CNS; digestive tract; circulatory system

  

Inhalation

Skin

Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
weakness; See Ingestion
May be absorbed, soluble, redness, 
pain 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
burning sensation behind breastbone 
and in the mouth

    

Arsenous 
trichloride 
7784-34-1

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs; CVS; CNS; GI tract

Mucous membranes; skin; liver; kidneys; PNS

Inhalation

Skin

Eyes
Ingestion

Corrosive, cough, laboured breathing; See Ingestion
Corrosive, may be absorbed, redness, 
pain 
Corrosive, pain, severe deep burns
Corrosive, abdominal pain, burning 
sensation, diarrhoea, vomiting, collapse

    

Arsine 
7784-42-1

Lungs; blood; kidneys

  

Inhalation


Skin
Eyes

Abdominal pain, confusion, dizziness, 
headache, nausea, shortness of breath, 
vomiting, weakness 
On contact with liquid: frostbite 
On contact with liquid: frostbite, redness

Blood; kidneys; liver (lung & lymphatic 
cancer)
Inh; con (liq)

Head, mal, weak, dizz; dysp; abdom, back pain; nau, vomit, bronze skin; hema; jaun; peri neur, liq: frostbite; (carc)

Calcium 
arsenate 
7778-44-1

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; CNS; digestive tract; circulatory system

PNS; skin; mucous membranes; liver

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
weakness: See Ingestion
May be absorbed, redness, pain
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
burning sensation behind breastbone 
and in the mouth

Eyes; resp sys; liver; skin; lymphatic sysrtem; CNS; (lymphatic & lung 
cancer) 
Inh; abs; ing; con

Weak; GI dist; peri neur, skin hyperpig, palmar planter hyperkeratoses; derm; (carc); in animals: liver damage

Lead arsenate
7784-40-9

Intestines; CVS

Skin; CNS; GI tract; liver; kidneys; blood; carcinogenic; may cause reproductive toxicity

Inhalation



Skin
Eyes

Abdominal cramps, diarrhoea, 
headache, nausea, vomiting, tightness 
of chest, constipation, excitation, 
disorientation 
Redness 
Redness

    

Methylarsonic 
acid 
124-58-3

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs

Bone marrow; PNS; kidneys; liver

Inhalation
Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough 
Redness 
Redness 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
burning sensation in throat

Organic arsenic compounds: Skin, resp sys, kidneys, CNS, liver, GI tract, repro sys

In animals: irrit skin, possible derm; resp. distress; diarr; kidney damage; musc tremor, sez; possible GI tract, terato, repro effects; possible liver damage

Sodium 
arsenate 
10048-95-0

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; digestive tract; heart; liver; kidneys; CNS

Skin; CNS; CVS; blood; liver; carcinogenic

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, headache, sore throat; 
See Ingestion
Redness, pain
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
diarrhoea, vomiting

    

Barium 
7440-39-3

Eyes; skin; resp. tract

  

Inhalation
Skin
Eyes

Cough, sore throat
Redness
Redness, pain

    

Barium 
chlorate 
13477-00-4

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; various tissues and organs

Tissues and organs

Inhalation


Eyes
Ingestion

Abdominal pain, abdominal cramps, 
burning sensation, nausea, vomiting, 
weakness, paralysis 
Redness, pain
Abdominal cramps, abdominal pain, 
blue lips or fingernails, blue skin, 
burning sensation, diarrhoea, dizziness, 
nausea, sore throat, vomiting, 
weakness, cardiac dysrhythmia

    

Barium 
chloride 
10361-37-2

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; CNS; muscles

  

Inhalation
Eyes
Ingestion

Abdominal cramps, unconsciousness
Redness
Abdominal cramps, dullness, 
unconsciousness

Heart; CNS; skin; resp sys; eyes 
Inh; ing; con

Irrit eyes, skin, upper resp sys; skin burns, gastroenteritis; musc spasm; slow pulse, extrasystoles; hypokalaemia

Barium 
chloride,
dihydrate 
10362-27-9

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; CNS; muscles

  

Inhalation
Eyes
Ingestion

Abdominal cramps, unconsciousness
Redness 
Abdominal cramps, dullness, 
unconsciousness

    

Barium oxide 
1304-28-5

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; muscles

Lungs

Inhalation
Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, shortness of breath, sore throat
Redness 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, dizziness, 
nausea, vomiting, muscle paralysis, 
cardiac arrhythmia, hypertension, death

    

Barium
peroxide 
1304-29-6

  

Skin

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, nausea, shortness of breath, sore throat
Redness, skin burns, pain, bleaching
Redness, pain, severe deep burns
Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
sore throat

    

Barium 
sulphate 
7727-43-7

  

Lungs

Inhalation

Cough

Eyes; resp sys 
Inh; con

Irrit eyes, nose, upper resp sys; 
benign pneumoconiosis (baritosis)

Cadmium 
7440-43-9

Eyes; resp. tract; lungs

Lungs; kidneys

Inhalation

Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, headache, symptoms may be 
delayed 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, headache, 
nausea, vomiting

Resp sys; kidneys; prostate; blood (prostatic & lung 
cancer)
Inh; ing

Pulm oedema, dysp, cough, tight chest, subs pain; head; chills, musc aches; nau, vomit, diarr; anos, emphy, prot, mild anaemia; (carc)

Cadmium 
chloride 
10108-64-2

Resp. tract; digestive tract; lungs

Lungs; kidneys; bone; probably carcinogenic

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, laboured breathing, symptoms 
may be delayed 
Redness 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting

    

Cadmium 
oxide 
1306-19-0

Resp. tract; digestive tract; lungs

Lungs; kidneys; carcinogenic

Inhalation


Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, laboured breathing, shortness 
of breath, 
symptoms may be delayed 
Redness 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal cramps, diarrhoea, nausea, 
vomiting

Resp sys; kidneys; blood; (prostatic & lung cancer) 
Inh

Pulm oedema, dysp, cough, tight chest, subs pain; head; chills, musc aches; nau, vomit, diarr; anos, emphy, prot, mild anaemia; (carc)

Cadmium 
sulphide 
1306-23-6

  

Lungs; kidneys; carcinogenic

        

Chromium 
7440-47-3

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs; kidneys

Skin; asthma; larynx; lungs

Eyes
Ingestion

Irritation 
Diarrhoea, nausea, unconsciousness, 
vomiting

Resp sys; skin; eyes 
Inh; ing; con

Irrit eyes, skin; lung fib (histologic)

Chromyl 
chloride 
14977-61-8

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs; corrosive on ingestion

Skin; asthma; probably carcinogenic

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, laboured breathing, shortness 
of breath, sore throat 
Redness, skin burns, pain, blisters
Redness, pain, severe deep burns 
Abdominal pain

Eyes; skin; resp sys (lung cancer) 
Inh; abs; ing; con

Irrit eyes, skin, upper resp sys; eye, skin burns

Lead 
chromate 
7758-97-6

Resp. tract; may cause perforation of nasal septum

Skin; inhalation may cause asthma; lungs

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
nausea, metallic taste 
Skin burns, ulcers, blisters
Redness 
Abdominal pain, constipation, 
convulsions, cough, diarrhoea, 
vomiting, weakness, anorexia

    

Cobalt 
7440-48-4

  

Skin; resp. tract; lungs; heart

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, laboured breathing, shortness 
of breath 
Redness 
Redness 
Abdominal pain, vomiting

Resp sys; skin 
Inh; ing; con

Cough, dysp, wheez, decr pulm func; low-wgt; derm; diffuse nodular fib; resp hypersensitivity, asthma

Cobalt 
chloride 
7646-79-9

Eyes; skin; resp. tract

Skin; resp. tract ; heart

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, laboured breathing, shortness 
of breath 
Redness 
Redness 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, nausea, 
vomiting

    

Cobalt (III) 
oxide 
1308-04-9

Eyes; skin; resp. tract

Skin; may cause asthma; lungs; possibly carcinogenic

Inhalation

Eyes

Cough, laboured breathing, shortness 
of breath 
Redness

    

Cobalt 
naphthenate 
61789-51-3

Eyes; resp. tract

Skin

Inhalation
Skin
Eyes

Cough, sore throat 
Redness, pain 
Redness, pain

    

Copper 
7440-50-8

Eyes

Skin; lungs

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, headache, shortness of breath, 
sore throat 
Redness 
Redness, pain
Abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting

Eyes; resp sys; skin; liver; kidneys (incr risk with Wilsons disease)
Inh; ing; con

Irrit eyes, nose, pharynx; nasal perf; metallic taste; derm; in animals: lung, liver, kidney damage; anaemia

Copper (I) 
oxide 
1317-39-1

Eyes; resp. tract

  

Inhalation
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, metallic taste, metal fume fever
Redness 
Abdominal cramps, diarrhoea, nausea, 
vomiting

    

Lead 
7439-92-1

  

Nervous system; kidneys; may impair fertility; may cause retarded development of the newborn

Inhalation
Ingestion

Headache, nausea, abdominal spasm
Headache, nausea, sore throat, 
abdominal spasm

Eyes; GI tract; CNS; kidneys; blood; gingival tissue 
Inh; ing; con

Weak, lass, insom; facial pallor; pal eye, anor, low-wgt, malnut; constip, abdom pain, colic; anemia; gingival lead line; tremor; para wrist, ankles; encephalopathy; kidney disease; irrit eyes; hypotension

Lead acetate 
301-04-2

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; blood; CNS; kidneys

Blood; bone marrow; CVS; kidneys; CNS

Inhalation

Eyes
Ingestion

Headache, chronic but not described as 
acute; See Ingestion
Redness, pain
Abdominal cramps, constipation, 
convulsions, headache, nausea, vomiting

    

Tetraethyl 
lead 
78-00-2

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; CNS

Skin; CNS; may cause genetic damage; may cause reproductive toxicity

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Convulsions, dizziness, headache, 
unconsciousness, vomiting, weakness
May be absorbed, redness
Pain, blurred vision 
Convulsions, diarrhoea, dizziness, 
headache, unconsciousness, vomiting, 
weakness

CNS; CVS; kidneys; eyes 
Inh; abs; ing; con

Insom, lass, anxiety; tremor, hyper-reflexia, spasticity; bradycardia, hypotension, hypothermia, pallor, nau, anor, low-wgt; conf, disorientation, halu, psychosis, mania, convuls, coma; eye irrit

Lead (II) 
oxide 
1317-36-8

  

CNS; kidneys; blood

        

Magnesium 
7439-95-4

    

Inhalation
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, laboured breathing 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea

    

Magnesium 
chloride 
7786-30-3

Eyes; resp. tract

  

Inhalation
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough 
Redness 
Diarrhoea

    

Magnesium 
oxide 
1309-48-4

Eyes; nose

  

Inhalation
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough 
Redness 
Diarrhoea

Eyes; resp sys
Inh; con

Irrit eyes, nose; metal fume fever, cough, chest pain, flu-like fever

Magnesium 
phosphide 
12057-74-8

Eyes; skin; resp. tract

  

Inhalation


Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
cough, dizziness, dullness, headache, 
laboured breathing, nausea, sore throat
Redness, pain
Redness, pain
Abdominal pain, convulsions, nausea, 
unconsciousness, vomiting

    

Manganese 
sulphate 
10034-96-5

Eyes; skin; resp. tract

Lungs; CNS; liver; kidneys; testes

Inhalation

Skin

Eyes
Ingestion

Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing 
May be absorbed, redness, burning 
sensation 
Redness, pain, blurred vision 
Abdominal cramps, nausea, sore throat

    

Mercury 
7439-97-6

Eyes; skin; lungs; CNS

CNS; nervous system; kidneys

Inhalation
Skin
Eyes

Pulmonary irritation, cough 
May be absorbed 
Irritating

Skin; resp sys; CNS; kidneys; eyes
Inh; abs; ing; con

Irrit eyes, skin; cough, chest pain, dysp, bron pneuitis; tremor, insom, irrity, indecision, head, ftg, weak; stomatitis, salv; GI dist, anor, low-wgt; prot

Mercuric 
acetate 
1600-27-7

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs; kidneys

Skin; kidneys

Inhalation



Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
shortness of breath, sore throat, 
symptoms may be delayed;
See Ingestion
May be absorbed, skin burns, pain 
Pain, blurred vision, severe deep burns 
Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
diarrhoea, vomiting, metallic taste

    

Mercuric 
chloride 
7487-94-7

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs; kidneys

Skin; kidneys

Inhalation



Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing, shortness of breath, sore 
throat, symptoms may be delayed; 
See Ingestion
May be absorbed, pain, blisters 
Pain, blurred vision, severe deep burns
Abdominal cramps, abdominal pain, 
burning sensation, diarrhoea, nausea, 
sore throat, vomiting, metallic taste

    

Mercuric 
nitrate 
10045-94-0

Skin; resp. tract; eyes; kidneys

Kidneys

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, headache, laboured breathing, 
shortness of breath, sore throat 
May be absorbed, redness, pain 
Pain, blurred vision, severe deep burns
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, 
metallic taste

    

Mercuric 
oxide 
21908-53-2

Eyes; skin; resp. tract

Skin; kidneys; CNS

Inhalation
Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough 
May be absorbed, redness 
Redness 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea

    

Mercuric 
sulphate 
7783-35-9

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs; GI tract; corrosive on ingestion

Kidneys

Inhalation



Skin

Eyes
Ingestion

Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing, shortness of breath, 
weakness, symptoms may be delayed;
See Ingestion
May be absorbed, redness, burning 
sensation, pain 
Pain, blurred vision, severe deep burns 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, nausea, 
vomiting, metallic taste

    

Mercurous 
chloride 
10112-91-1

Eyes

Kidneys

Eyes
Ingestion

Redness
Weakness

    

Mercury 
organoalkyl 
compound

        

Eyes; skin; CNS; PNS; kidneys
Inh; abs; ing; con

Pares; ataxia, dysarthria; vision, 
hearing dist; spasticity, jerking limbs; dizz; salv; lac; nau, vomit, diarr, 
constip; skin burns; emotional dist; 
kidney inj; possible terato effects

Phenylmercuric acetate
62-38-4

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; kidneys

Skin; CNS; possibly causes toxic effects upon human reproduction

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, laboured breathing, sore throat, 
symptoms may be delayed 
May be absorbed, redness, pain
Redness, pain, blurred vision 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, nausea, 
vomiting, weakness, symptoms of 
delayed effects

    

Phenylmercuric nitrate
55-68-5

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; kidneys

Skin; CNS; possibly causes toxic effects on human reproduction

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, laboured breathing, sore throat, 
symptoms may be delayed 
May be absorbed, redness, pain
Redness, pain, blurred vision 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, nausea, 
vomiting, symptoms of delayed effects

    

Nickel 
7440-02-0

Eyes; resp. tract

Skin; inhalation may cause asthma; may effect conjuctiva; possibly carcinogenic

    

Nasal cavities; lungs; skin (lung & nasal 
cancer)
Inh; ing; con

Sens derm, allergic asthma, pneuitis; (carc)

Nickel (II) 
oxide 
1313-99-1

Eyes; resp. tract

Skin; inhalation may cause asthma; carcinogenic

Inhalation
Skin
Eyes

Cough 
Redness 
Redness

    

Nickel 
carbonate 
3333-67-3

Eyes; resp. tract

Skin; carcinogenic; asthma

Inhalation
Skin
Eyes

Cough 
Redness 
Redness

    

Nickel 
carbonyl 
13463-39-3

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs; CNS

Possibly carcinogenic; may cause defects on the unborn child

Inhalation



Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Abdominal pain, blue skin, cough, 
dizziness, headache, nausea, shortness 
of breath, vomiting, symptoms may be 
delayed 
May be absorbed, redness, pain 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, headache, nausea, 
vomiting

Lungs; paranasal sinus; CNS; repro sys (lung & nasal cancer)
Inh; abs; ing; con

Head, verti; nau, vomit, epigastric pain; subs pain; cough, hyperpnea; cyan; weak; leucyt; pneuitis; delirium; 
convuls; (carc); in animals: repro, terato effects

Nickel 
sulphide 
12035-72-2

Eyes; skin; resp. tract

Skin; possibly carcinogenic

Inhalation

Cough, sore throat

    

Nickel 
sulphate 
7786-81-4

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; GI tract; CNS

Skin; asthma; possibly carcinogenic

Inhalation
Skin
Eyess
Ingestion

Cough, sore throat 
May be absorbed, redness 
Redness 
Abdominal pain, dizziness, headache, 
nausea, vomiting

    

Osmium 
tetroxide 
20816-12-0

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs

Skin; kidneys

Inhalation


Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, headache, wheezing, shortness 
of breath, visual disturbances, 
symptoms may be delayed 
Redness, skin burns, skin discoloration 
Blurred vision, loss of vision 
Burning sensation

Eyes; resp sys; skin Inh; ing; con

Irrit eyes, resp sys; lac, vis dist; conj; head; cough, dysp; derm

Platinium 
tetrachloride 
13454-96-1

Eyes; skin; resp. tract

  

Inhalation
Skin
Eyes

Burning sensation, cough 
Redness 
Redness

Eyes; skin; resp sys Inh; ing; con

Irrit eyes, nose; cough; dysp, wheez, cyan; derm, sens skin; lymphocytosis

Hydrogen 
selenide 
7783-07-5

Eyes; resp. tract; lungs

Skin; liver; spleen; kidneys

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes

Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing, nausea, sore throat, 
weakness 
On contact with liquid: frostbite 
Redness, pain;

Resp sys; eyes; liver Inh; con

Irrit eyes, nose, throat; nau, vomit, diarr; metallic taste, garlic breathy; dizz, lass, ftg; liq: frostbite; in animals: pneuitis; liver damage

Selenious acid 
7783-00-8

Eyes; skin; resp. tract

Skin

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes

Ingestion

Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing, sore throat
May be absorbed, redness, pain, blisters 
Redness, pain, blurred vision, severe 
deep burns, puffy eyelids 
Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
confusion, nausea, sore throat, 
weakness, low blood pressure

    

Selenious 
acid, 
disodium salt 
10102-18-8

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs; liver; kidneys; heart; CNS; GI tract

teeth; bone; blood

Inhalation



Skin
Eyes

Abdominal cramps, diarrhoea, dizziness, 
headache, hair loss, laboured breathing, 
nausea, vomiting, symptoms may be 
delayed 
Redness 
Redness

    

Selenium 7782-49-2

Lungs

Skin; resp. tract; GI tract; integuments

Inhalation



Skin

Eyes
Ingestion

Irritation of nose, cough, dizziness, 
headache, laboured breathing, nausea, 
sore throat, vomiting, weakness, 
symptoms may be delayed 
Redness, skin burns, pain, 
discolouration 
Redness, pain, blurred vision 
Metallic taste, diarrhoea, chills, fever

Resp sys; eyes; skin; liver; kidneys; blood; spleen 
Inh; ing; con

Irrit eyes, skin, nose, throat; vis dist; head; chills, fever, dysp, bron; metallic taste, garlic breath, GI dist; derm, eye, skin burns; in animals: anemia; liver nec, cirr; kidney, spleen damage

Selenium 
dioxide 
7446-08-4

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs

Skin

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes

Ingestion

Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing, sore throat 
May be absorbed, redness, pain, blisters 
Redness, pain, blurred vision, severe 
deep burns, puffy eyelids 
Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
confusion, nausea, sore throat, 
weakness, low blood pressure

    

Selenium 
hexafluoride 
7783-79-1

Resp. tract; lungs

Skin; CNS; liver; kidneys

Inhalation

Skin

Eyes

Corrosive, cough, headache, nausea, 
shortness of breath, sore throat 
Redness, pain, on contact with liquid: 
frostbite; corrosive 
Redness, pain, blurred vision;

Resp sys
Inh

In animals: plum irrit, edema

Selenium 
oxychloride 
7791-23-3

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs

Skin

Inhalation

Skin

Eyes

Ingestion

Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing, sore throat 
Corrosive, may be absorbed, redness, 
pain, blisters 
Redness, pain, blurred vision, severe 
deep burns 
Abdominal cramps, confusion, nausea, 
sore throat, hypotension

    

Selenium 
trioxide 
13768-86-0

Eyes; skin; resp. tract

Skin; lungs

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes

Ingestion

Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing, sore throat 
May be absorbed, redness, pain 
Redness, pain, blurred vision, puffy 
eyelids 
Abdominal cramps, confusion, nausea, 
sore throat, weakness, low blood 
pressure

    

Silver 
7740-22-4

  

Eyes; nose; throat; skin

    

Nasal septum; skin; eyes
Inh; ing; con

Blue-gray eyes, nasal septum, throat, skin; irrit, ulceration skin; GI dist

Silver nitrate 
7761-88-8

Eyes; skin; resp. tract

Blood; skin

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes

Ingestion

Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing 
Redness, skin burns, pain
Redness, pain, loss of vision, severe 
deep burns 
Abdominal pain, burning sensation, 
weakness

    

Strontium 
chromate 
7789-06-2

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; kidneys; liver

Skin; lungs; blood; liver; kidneys; brain; red and white blood cells; liver; kidneys; carcinogenic

Inhalation
Skin
Ingestion

Cough, hoarseness 
Redness, ulcerations 
Sore throat

    

Tellurium 
13494-80-9

Resp. tract; CNS

Possibly causes malformations in human 
babies

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Drowsiness, headache, garlic odour, 
nausea 
May be absorbed 
Redness 
Abdominal pain, constipation, nausea, vomiting, garlic odour of the breath

Skin; CNS; blood 
Inh; ing; con

Garlic breath, sweat; dry mouth, metallic taste; som; anor, nau, no sweat; derm; in animals: CNS, red blood cell effects

Thallium 
metal 
7440-28-0

Nervous system

Eyes; liver; lungs; may cause birth defects

Inhalation


Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Nausea, vomiting, loss of hair, abdominal colic, pain in legs and chest, nervousness, irritability 
May be absorbed 
May be absorbed 
Abdominal pain, constipation, diarrhoea, headache, nausea, vomiting, loss of vision

Eyes; CNS; lungs; liver; kidneys; GI tract, body hair; resp sys
Inh; abs; ing; con

Nau, diarr, abdom pain, vomit; ptosis, strabismus; peri neuritis, tremor; retster tight, chest pain, pulm edema; sez, chorea, psychosis; liver, kidney damage; alopecia; pares legs

Thallous 
sulphate 
7446-18-6

Eyes; skin; CNS; CVS; kidneys; GI tract

  

Inhalation
Skin

Eyes
Ingestion

See Ingestion
May be absorbed, redness;
See Ingestion
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, convulsions, diarrhoea, headache, vomiting, weakness, delirium, tachycardia

    

Di-N-Dibutyltin
oxide
818-08-6

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs

Skin; PNS; liver; bile duct; lymphatic system;

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes

Headache, ringing in the ears, memory 
loss, disorientation
May be absorbed, skin burns, pain 
Redness, pain

    

Stannic 
chloride 
7646-78-8

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; lungs

Skin

Inhalation


Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Burning sensation, cough, laboured 
breathing, shortness of breath, sore 
throat 
Redness, skin burns, blisters 
Severe deep burns 
Abdominal cramps, vomiting

    

Stannic oxide 
18282-10-5

Resp. tract

Lungs

Inhalation

Cough

Resp sys
Inh; con

Stannosis (benign pneumoconiosis): dysp, decr pulm func

Stannous
chloride
7772-99-8

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; CNS; blood

Liver

Inhalation
Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, shortness of breath 
Redness 
Redness, pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, nausea, 
vomiting

    

Stannous chloride 
dihydrate 
10025-69-1

Eyes; skin; resp. tract; CNS; blood

Liver

Inhalation
Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough, shortness of breath 
Redness 
Redness pain 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, nausea, 
vomiting

    

Stannous 
fluoride 
7783-47-3

Skin; resp. tract; eyes

Teeth; bone

Inhalation
Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough 
Redness 
Redness, pain, severe deep burns 
Abdominal pain, nausea

    

Tin oxide 
21651-19-4

Resp. tract

Lungs

Inhalation

Cough

Resp sys
Inh; con

Stannosis (benign pneumoconiosis): dysp, decr pulm func

Titanium 
dioxide 
13463-67-7

Eyes; lungs

Lungs

Inhalation
Eyes

Cough 
Redness

Resp sys (in animals: lung tumors)
Inh

Lung fib; (carc)

Vanadium 
pentoxide 
1314-62-1

Eyes; resp. tract; lungs

Skin; lungs; tongue

Inhalation

Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Burning sensation, cough, shortness of 
breath 
Redness, burning sensation 
Redness, pain, conjunctivitis 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, drowsiness, 
unconsciousness, vomiting, symptoms of 
severe systemic poisoning and death

Resp sys; skin; eyes
Inh; con

Irrit eyes, skin, throat; green tongue, metallic taste, eczema; cough; fine râles, wheez, bron, dysp

Vanadium 
trioxide 
1314-34-7

Eyes; skin; resp. tract

Resp. tract; may effect liver and cardiac function

Inhalation



Skin
Eyes
Ingestion

Runny nose, sneezing, cough, 
diarrhoea, laboured breathing, sore 
throat, weakness, pain in chest, green 
to black tongue 
Dry skin, redness 
Redness 
Headache, vomiting, weakness

    

Zinc chromate 
13530-65-9

  

Skin;  resp. tract

Inhalation
Eyes
Ingestion

Cough 
Redness 
Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, vomiting

    

Zinc 
phosphide 
1314-84-7

Resp. tract; lungs; liver; kidneys; heart; CNS

  

Inhalation

Ingestion

Cough, diarrhoea, headache, fatigue, 
nausea, vomiting 
Abdominal pain, cough, diarrhoea, 
dizziness, headache, laboured 
breathing, nausea, unconsciousness, 
vomiting, ataxia, fatigue

    

The short-term and long-term exposure data area adapted from the International Chemical Safety Cards (ICSC) series produced by the International Programme on Chemical Safety (see notes to table 1). The abbreviations used are CNS = central nervous system; CVS = cardiovascular system; PNS = peripheral nervous system; resp. tract = respiratory tract.

The remaining data are adapted from the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards (NIOSH 1994). The following abbreviations are used:
abdom = abdominal; abnor = abnormal/abnormalities; album = albuminuria; anes = anesthesia; anor = anorexia; anos = anosmia (loss of the sense of smell); 
appre = apprehension; arrhy = arrhythmias; aspir = aspiration; asphy = asphyxia; BP = blood pressure; breath = breathing; bron = bronchitis; 
broncopneu = bronchopneumonia; bronspas = bronchospasm; BUN = blood urea nitrogen; (carc) = potential occupational carcinogen; card = cardiac; chol = cholinesterase; 
cirr = cirrhosis; CNS = central nervous system; conc = concentration; conf = confusion; conj = conjunctivitis; constip = constipation; convuls = convulsions; corn = corneal;
CVS = cardiovascular system; cyan = cyanosis; decr = decreased; depress = depressant/depression; derm = dermatitis; diarr = diarrhea; dist = disturbance; dizz = dizziness;
drow = drowsiness; dysfunc = dysfunction; dysp = dyspnea (breathing difficulty); emphy = emphysema; eosin = eosinophilia; epilep = epileptiform; epis = epistaxis 
(nosebleed); equi = equilibrium; eryt = erythema (skin redness); euph = euphoria; fail = failure; fasc = fasiculation; FEV = forced expiratory volume; fib = fibrosis; 
fibri = fibrillation; ftg = fatigue; func = function; GI = gastrointestinal; gidd = giddiness; halu = hallucinations; head = headache; hema = hematuria (blood in the urine); 
hemato = hematopoietic; hemog = hemoglobinuria; hemorr = hemorrhage; hyperpig = hyperpigmentation; hypox = hypoxemia (reduced oxygen in the blood); 
inco = incoordination; incr = increase(d); inebri = inebriation; inflamm = inflammation; inj = injury; insom = insomnia; irreg = irregularity/irregularities; irrit = irritation; 
irrty = irritability; jaun = jaundice; kera = keratitis (inflammation of the cornea); lac = lacrimation (discharge of tears); lar = laryngeal; lass = lassitude (weakness, exhaustion);
leth = lethargy (drowsiness or indifference); leucyt = leukocytosis (increased blood leukocytes); leupen = leukopenia (reduced blood leukocytes); li-head = lightheadedness; 
liq = liquid; local = localized; low-wgt = weight loss; mal = malaise (vague feeling of discomfort); malnut = malnutrition; methemo = methemoglobinemia; 
monocy = monocytosis (increased blood monocytes); molt = molten; muc memb = mucous membrane; musc = muscle; narco = narcosis; nau = nausea; nec = necrosis; 
nept = nephritis; ner = nervousness; numb = numbness; opac = opacity; palp = palpitations; para = paralysis; pares = paresthesia; perf = perforation; peri neur = peripheral neuropathy; periorb = periorbital (situated around the eye); phar = pharyngeal; photo = phtophobia (abnormal visual intolerance to); pneu = penumonia; 
pneuitis = pneumonitis; PNS = peripheral nervous system; polyneur = polyneuropathy; prot = proteinuria; pulm = pulmonary; RBC = red blood cell; repro = reproductive; 
resp = respiratory; restless = restlessness; retster = retrosternal (occurring behind the sternum); rhin = rhinorrhea (discharge of thin nasal mucus); salv = salivation; 
sens = sensitization; sez = seizure; short = shortness; sneez = sneezing; sol = solid; soln = solution; som = somnolence (sleepiness, unnatural drowsiness); subs = substernal
(occurring beneath the sternum); sweat = sweating; swell = swelling; sys = system; tacar = tachycardia; tend = tenderness; terato = teratogenic; throb = throbbing; 
tight = tightness; trachbronch = tracheobronchitis; twitch = twitching; uncon = unconsciousness; vap = vapor; venfib = ventricular fibrillation; vert = vertigo (an illusion of
movement); vesic = vesiculation; vis dist = viszal disturbance; vomit = vomiting; weak = weakness; wheez = wheezing.

The reader is referred to the Guide to chemicals in Volume IV of this Encyclopaedia for additional information on the toxicity of related chemical substances and compounds. Calcium compounds and boron compounds, in particular, are to be found there. Specific information on biological monitoring is given in the chapter Biological monitoring.

 

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Published in 63. Metals: Chemical Properties and Toxicity
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Wednesday, 09 February 2011 04:19

Acknowledgements

The material presented here is based on an exhaustive review, revision and expansion of the data on metals found in the 3rd edition of the Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety. Members of the Scientific Committee on the Toxicology of Metals of the International Commission on Occupational Health carried out much of the review. They are listed below, along with other reviewers and authors.

The reviewers are:

L. Alessio

Antero Aitio

P. Aspostoli

M. Berlin

Tom W. Clarkson

C-G. Elinder

Lars Friberg

Byung-Kook Lee

N. Karle Mottet

D.J. Nager

Kogi Nogawa

Tor Norseth

C.N. Ong

Kensaborv Tsuchiva

Nies Tsukuab.

The 4th edition contributors are:

Gunnar Nordberg

Sverre Langård.

F. William Sunderman, Jr.

Jeanne Mager Stellman

Debra Osinsky

Pia Markkanen

Bertram D. Dinman

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR).

Revisions are based on the contributions of the following 3rd edition authors:
A. Berlin, M. Berlin, P.L. Bidstrup, H.L. Boiteau, A.G. Cumpston, B.D. Dinman, A.T. Doig,
J.L. Egorov, C-G. Elinder, H.B. Elkins, I.D. Gadaskina, J. Glrmme, J.R. Glover,
G.A. Gudzovskij, S. Horiguchi, D. Hunter, Lars Järup, T. Karimuddin, R. Kehoe, R.K. Kye,
Robert R. Lauwerys, S. Lee, C. Marti-Feced, Ernest Mastromatteo, O. Ja Mogilevskaja,
L. Parmeggiani, N. Perales y Herrero, L. Pilat, T.A. Roscina, M. Saric, Herbert E. Stokinger,
H.I. Scheinberg, P. Schuler, H.J. Symanski, R.G. Thomas, D.C. Trainor, Floyd A. van Atta,
R. Wagg, Mitchell R. Zavon and R.L. Zielhuis.

 

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Published in 63. Metals: Chemical Properties and Toxicity
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Wednesday, 09 February 2011 04:23

Aluminium

Gunner Nordberg

Occurrence and uses

Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the earth’s crust, where it is found in combination with oxygen, fluorine, silica, etc., but never in the metallic state. Bauxite is the principal source of aluminium. It consists of a mixture of minerals formed by the weathering of aluminium-bearing rocks. Bauxites are the richest form of these weathered ores, containing up to 55% alumina. Some lateritic ores (containing higher percentages of iron) contain up to 35% Al2O3· Commercial deposits of bauxite are mainly gibbsite (Al2O3·3H2O) and boehmite (Al2O3·H2O) and are found in Australia, Guyana, France, Brazil, Ghana, Guinea, Hungary, Jamaica and Suriname. World production of bauxite in 1995 was 111,064 million tonnes. Gibbsite is more readily soluble in sodium hydroxide solutions than boehmite and is therefore preferred for aluminium oxide production.

Aluminium is used widely throughout industry and in larger quantities than any other non-ferrous metal; worldwide primary metal production in 1995 was estimated at 20,402 million tonnes. It is alloyed with a variety of other material including copper, zinc, silicon, magnesium, manganese and nickel and may contain small amounts of chromium, lead, bismuth, titanium, zirconium and vanadium for special purposes. Aluminium and aluminium alloy ingots can be extruded or processed in rolling mills, wire-works, forges or foundries. The finished products are used in shipbuilding for internal fittings and superstructures; the electrical industry for wires and cables; the building industry for house and window frames, roofs and cladding; aircraft industry for airframes and aircraft skin and other components; automobile industry for bodywork, engine blocks and pistons; light engineering for domestic appliances and office equipment and in the jewellery industry. A major application of sheet is in beverage or food containers, while aluminium foil is used for packaging; a fine particulate form of aluminium is employed as a pigment in paints and in the pyrotechnics industry. Articles manufactured from aluminium are frequently given a protective and decorative surface finish by anodization.

Aluminium chloride is used in petroleum cracking and in the rubber industry. It fumes in air to form hydrochloric acid and combines explosively with water; consequently, containers should be kept tightly closed and protected from moisture.

Alkyl aluminium compounds. These are growing in importance as catalysts for the production of low-pressure polyethylene. They present a toxic, burn and fire hazard. They are extremely reactive with air, moisture and compounds containing active hydrogen and therefore must be kept under a blanket of inert gas.

Hazards

For the production of aluminium alloys, refined aluminium is melted in oil or gas-fired furnaces. A regulated amount of hardener containing aluminium blocks with a percentage of manganese, silicon, zinc, magnesium, etc. is added. The melt is then mixed and is passed into a holding furnace for degassing by passing either argon-chlorine or nitrogen-chlorine through the metal. The resultant gas emission (hydrochloric acid, hydrogen and chlorine) has been associated with occupational illnesses and great care should be taken to see that appropriate engineering controls capture the emissions and also prevent it from reaching the external environment, where it can also cause damage. Dross is skimmed off the surface of the melt and placed in containers to minimize exposure to air during cooling. A flux containing fluoride and/or chloride salts is added to the furnace to assist in separation of pure aluminium from the dross. Aluminium oxide and fluoride fumes may be given off so that this aspect of production must also be carefully controlled. Personal protective equipment (PPE) may be required. The aluminium smelting process is described in the chapter Metal processing and metal working industry. In the casting shops, exposure to sulphur dioxide may also occur.

A wide range of different crystalline forms of aluminium oxide is used as smelter feed stock, abrasives, refractories and catalysts. A series of reports published in 1947 to 1949 described a progressive, non-nodular interstitial fibrosis in the aluminium abrasives industry in which aluminium oxide and silicon were processed. This condition, known as Shaver’s disease, was rapidly progressive and often fatal. The exposure of the victims (workers producing alundum) was to a dense fume comprising aluminium oxide, crystalline free-silica and iron. The particulates were of a size range that made them highly respirable. It is likely that the preponderence of disease is attributable to the highly damaging lung effects of the finely divided crystalline free-silica, rather than to the inhaled aluminium oxide, although the exact aetiology of the disease is not understood. Shaver’s disease is primarily of historical interest now, since no reports have been made in the second half of the 20th century.

Recent studies of the health effects of high level exposures (100 mg/m3) to the oxides of aluminium amongst workers engaged in the Bayer process (described in the chapter Metal processing and metal working industry) have demonstrated that workers with more than twenty years of exposure can develop pulmonary alterations. These changes are clinically characterized by minor, predominantly asymptomatic degrees of restrictive pulmonary function changes. The chest x-ray examinations revealed small, scanty, irregular opacities, particularly at the lung bases. These clinical responses have been attributed to deposition of dust in the lung paraenchyma, which was the result of very high occupational exposures. These signs and symptoms cannot be compared to the extreme response of Shaver’s disease. It should be noted that other epidemiological studies in the United Kingdom regarding widespread alumina exposures in the pottery industry have produced no evidence that the inhalation of alumina dust produces chemical or radiographic signs of pulmonary disease or dysfunction.

The toxicological effects of aluminium oxides remain of interest because of its commerical importance. The results of animal experiments are controversial. An especially fine (0.02 μm to 0.04 μm), catalytically active aluminium oxide, uncommonly used commercially, can cause lung changes in animals dosed by injection directly into the lung airways. Lower dose effects have not been observed.

It should also be noted that so-called “potroom asthma” which has frequently been observed among workers in aluminium processing operations, is probably attributable to the exposures to fluoride fluxes, rather than to the aluminium dust itself.

The production of aluminium has been classified as a Group 1, known human carcinogenic exposure situation, by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). As with the other diseases described above, the carcinogenicity is most likely attributable to the other substances present (e.g., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and silica dust), although the exact role of the alumina dusts are simply not understood.

Some data on the absorption of high levels of aluminium and nervous tissue damage are found among individuals requiring kidney dialysis. These high levels of aluminium have resulted in severe, even fatal brain damage. This response, however, has also been observed in other patients undergoing dialysis but who did not have similar elevated brain aluminium level. Animal experiments have been unsuccessful in replicating this brain response, or Alzheimer’s disease, which has also been postulated in the literature. Epidemiological and clinical follow-up studies on these issues have not been definitive and no evidence of such effects has been observed in the several large-scale epidemiological studies of aluminium workers.

 

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Published in 63. Metals: Chemical Properties and Toxicity
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Wednesday, 09 February 2011 04:31

Antimony

Gunnar Nordberg

Antimony is stable at room temperature but, when heated, burns brilliantly, giving off dense white fumes of antimony oxide (Sb2O3) with a garlic-like odour. It is closely related, chemically, to arsenic. It readily forms alloys with arsenic, lead, tin, zinc, iron and bismuth.

Occurrence and Uses

In nature, antimony is found in combination with numerous elements, and the most common ores are stibnite (SbS3), valentinite (Sb2O3), kermesite (Sb2S2O) and senarmontite (Sb2O3).

High-purity antimony is employed in the manufacture of semiconductors. Normal-purity antimony is used widely in the production of alloys, to which it imparts increased hardness, mechanical strength, corrosion resistance and a low coefficient of friction; alloys combining tin, lead and antimony are used in the electrical industry. Among the more important antimony alloys are babbitt, pewter, white metal, Britannia metal and bearing metal. These are used for bearing shells, storage battery plates, cable sheathing, solder, ornamental castings and ammunition. The resistance of metallic antimony to acids and bases is put to effect in the manufacture of chemical plants.

Hazards

The principal hazard of antimony is that of intoxication by ingestion, inhalation or skin absorption. The respiratory tract is the most important route of entry since antimony is so frequently encountered as a fine airborne dust. Ingestion may occur through swallowing dust or through contamination of beverages, food or tobacco. Skin absorption is less common, but may occur when antimony is in prolonged contact with skin.

The dust encountered in antimony mining may contain free silica, and cases of pneumoconiosis (termed silico-antimoniosis) have been reported among antimony miners. During processing, the antimony ore, which is extremely brittle, is converted into fine dust more rapidly than the accompanying rock, leading to high atmospheric concentrations of fine dust during such operations as reduction and screening. Dust produced during crushing is relatively coarse, and the remaining operations—classification, flotation, filtration and so on—are wet processes and, consequently, dust free. Furnace workers who refine metallic antimony and produce antimony alloy, and workers setting type in the printing industry, are all exposed to antimony metal dust and fumes, and may present diffuse miliar opacities in the lung, with no clinical or functional signs of impairment in the absence of silica dust.

Inhalation of antimony aerosols may produce localized reactions of the mucous membrane, respiratory tract and lungs. Examination of miners and concentrator and smelter workers exposed to antimony dust and fumes has revealed dermatitis, rhinitis, inflammation of upper and lower respiratory tracts, including pneumonitis and even gastritis, conjunctivitis and perforations of the nasal septum.

Pneumoconiosis, sometimes in combination with obstructive lung changes, has been reported following long-term exposure in humans. Although antimony pneumoconiosis is regarded as benign, the chronic respiratory effects associated with heavy antimony exposure are not considered harmless. In addition, effects on the heart, even fatal, have been related to long-term occupational exposure to antimony trioxide.

Pustular skin infections are sometimes seen in persons working with antimony and antimony salts. These eruptions are transient and primarily affect the skin areas in which heat exposure or sweating has occurred.

Toxicology

In its chemical properties and metabolic action, antimony has a close resemblance to arsenic, and, since the two elements are sometimes found in association, the action of antimony may be blamed on arsenic, especially in foundry workers. However, experiments with high-purity metallic antimony have shown that this metal has a completely independent toxicology; different authors have found the average lethal dose to be between 10 and 11.2 mg/100 g.

Antimony may enter the body through the skin, but the principal route is through the lungs. From the lungs, antimony, and especially free antimony, is absorbed and taken up by the blood and tissues. Studies on workers and experiments with radioactive antimony have shown that the major part of the absorbed dose enters the metabolism within 48 hours and is eliminated in the faeces and, to a lesser extent, the urine. The remainder stays in the blood for some considerable time, with the erythrocytes containing several times more antimony than the serum. In workers exposed to pentavalent antimony, the urinary excretion of antimony is related to the intensity of exposure. It has been estimated that after 8 hours exposure to 500 µg Sb/m3, the increase in concentration of antimony excreted in the urine at the end of a shift amounts on average to 35 µg/g creatinine.

Antimony inhibits the activity of certain enzymes, binds sulphydryl groups in the serum, and disturbs protein and carbohydrate metabolism and the production of glycogen by the liver. Prolonged animal experiments with antimony aerosols have led to the development of distinctive endogenous lipoid pneumonia. Cardiac injury and cases of sudden death have also been reported in workers exposed to antimony. Focal fibrosis of the lung and cardiovascular effects have also been observed in animal trials.

The therapeutic use of antimonial drugs has made it possible to detect, in particular, the cumulative myocardial toxicity of the trivalent derivatives of antimony (which are excreted more slowly than pentavalent derivatives). Reduction in amplitude of T wave, increase of QT interval and arrhythmias have been observed in the electrocardiogram.

Symptoms

The symptoms of acute poisoning include violent irritation of the mouth, nose, stomach and intestines; vomiting and bloody stools; slow, shallow respiration; coma sometimes followed by death due to exhaustion and hepatic and renal complications. Those of chronic poisoning are: dryness of throat, nausea, headaches, sleeplessness, loss of appetite, and dizziness. Gender differences in the effects of antimony have been noted by some authors, but the differences are not well established.

Compounds

Stibine (SbH3), or antimony hydride (hydrogen antimonide), is produced by dissolving zinc-antimony or magnesium-antimony alloy in dilute hydrochloric acid. However, it occurs frequently as a by-product in the processing of metals containing antimony with reducing acids or in overcharging storage batteries. Stibine has been used as a fumigating agent. High-purity stibine is used as an n-type gas-phase dopant for silicon in semiconductors. Stibine is an extremely hazardous gas. Like arsine it may destroy blood cells and cause haemoglobinuria, jaundice, anuria and death. Symptoms include headache, nausea, epigastric pain and passage of dark red urine following exposure.

Antimony trioxide (Sb2O3) is the most important of the antimony oxides. When airborne, it tends to remain suspended for an exceptionally long time. It is obtained from antimony ore by a roasting process or by oxidizing metallic antimony and subsequent sublimation, and is used for the manufacture of tartar emetic, as a paint pigment, in enamels and glazes, and as a flameproofing compound.

Antimony trioxide is both a systemic poison and a skin disease hazard, although its toxicity is three times less than that of the metal. In long-term animal experiments, rats exposed to antimony trioxide via inhalation showed a high frequency of lung tumours. An excess of deaths due to cancer of the lung among workers engaged in antimony smelting for more than 4 years, at an average concentration in air of 8 mg/m3, has been reported from Newcastle. In addition to antimony dust and fumes, the workers were exposed to zircon plant effluents and caustic soda. No other experiences were informative on the carcinogenic potential of antimony trioxide. This has been classified by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) as a chemical substance associated with industrial processes which are suspected of inducing cancer.

Antimony pentoxide (Sb2O5) is produced by the oxidation of the trioxide or the pure metal, in nitric acid under heat. It is used in the manufacture of paints and lacquers, glass, pottery and pharmaceuticals. Antimony pentoxide is noted for its low degree of toxic hazard.

Antimony trisulphide (Sb2S3) is found as a natural mineral, antimonite, but can also be synthesized. It is used in the pyrotechnics, match and explosives industries, in ruby glass manufacture, and as a pigment and plasticizer in the rubber industry. An apparent increase in heart abnormalities has been found in persons exposed to the trisulphide. Antimony pentasulphide (Sb2S5) has much the same uses as the trisulphide and has a low level of toxicity.

Antimony trichloride (SbCl3), or antimonous chloride (butter of antimony), is produced by the interaction of chlorine and antimony or by dissolving antimony trisulphide in hydrochloric acid. Antimony pentachloride (SbCl5) is produced by the action of chlorine on molten antimony trichloride. The antimony chlorides are used for blueing steel and colouring aluminium, pewter and zinc, and as catalysts in organic synthesis, especially in the rubber and pharmaceutical industries. In addition, antimony trichloride is used in the match and petroleum industries. They are highly toxic substances, act as irritants and are corrosive to the skin. The trichloride has an LD50 of 2.5 mg/100 g.

Antimony trifluoride (SbF3) is prepared by dissolving antimony trioxide in hydrofluoric acid, and is used in organic synthesis. It is also employed in dyeing and pottery manufacture. Antimony trifluoride is highly toxic and an irritant to the skin. It has an LD50 of 2.3 mg/100 g.

Safety and Health Measures

The essence of any safety programme for the prevention of antimony poisoning should be the control of dust and fume formation at all stages of processing.

In mining, dust prevention measures are similar to those for metal mining in general. During crushing, the ore should be sprayed or the process completely enclosed and fitted with local exhaust ventilation combined with adequate general ventilation. In antimony smelting the hazards of charge preparation, furnace operation, fettling and electrolytic cell operation should be eliminated, where possible, by isolation and process automation. Furnace workers should be provided with water sprays and effective ventilation.

Where complete elimination of exposure is not possible, the hands, arms and faces of workers should be protected by gloves, dustproof clothing and goggles, and, where atmospheric exposure is high, respirators should be provided. Barrier creams should also be applied, especially when handling soluble antimony compounds, in which case they should be combined with the use of waterproof clothing and rubber gloves. Personal hygiene measures should be strictly observed; no food or beverages should be consumed in the workshops, and suitable sanitary facilities should be provided so that workers can wash before meals and before leaving work.

 

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Published in 63. Metals: Chemical Properties and Toxicity
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Wednesday, 09 February 2011 04:36

Arsenic

Gunnar Nordberg

There are three major groups of arsenic (As) compounds:

  1. inorganic arsenic compounds
  2. organic arsenic compounds
  3. arsine gas and substituted arsines.

     

    Occurrence and Uses

    Arsenic is found widely in nature and most abundantly in sulphide ores. Arsenopyrite (FeAsS) is the most abundant one.

    Elemental arsenic

    Elemental arsenic is utilized in alloys in order to increase their hardness and heat resistance (e.g., alloys with lead in shot-making and battery grids). It is also used in the manufacture of certain types of glass, as a component of electrical devices and as a doping agent in germanium and silicon solid-state products.

    Trivalent inorganic compounds

    Arsenic trichloride (AsCl3) is used in the ceramics industry and in the manufacturing of chlorine-containing arsenicals. Arsenic trioxide (As2O3), or white arsenic, is useful in the purification of synthesis gas and as a primary material for all arsenic compounds. It is also a preservative for hides and wood, a textile mordant, a reagent in mineral flotation, and a decolourizing and refining agent in glass manufacture. Calcium arsenite (Ca(As2H2O4)) and cupric acetoarsenite (usually considered Cu(COOCH3)2 3Cu(AsO2)2) are insecticides. Cupric acetoarsenite is also used for painting ships and submarines. Sodium arsenite (NaAsO2) is employed as a herbicide, a corrosion inhibitor, and as a drying agent in the textile industry. Arsenic trisulphide is a component of infrared-transmitting glass and a dehairing agent in the tanning industry. It is also used in the manufacturing of pyrotechnics and semiconductors.

    Pentavalent inorganic compounds

    Arsenic acid (H3AsO4·½H2O) is found in the manufacture of arsenates, glass making and wood-treating processes. Arsenic pentoxide (As2O5), an herbicide and a wood preservative, is also used in the manufacture of coloured glass.

    Calcium arsenate (Ca3(AsO4)2) is used as an insecticide.

    Organic arsenic compounds

    Cacodylic acid ((CH3)2AsOOH) is used as a herbicide and a defoliant. Arsanilic acid (NH2C6H4AsO(OH)2) finds use as a grasshopper bait and as an additive in animal feeds. Organic arsenic compounds in marine organisms occur in concentrations corresponding to a concentration of arsenic in the range 1 to 100 mg/kg in marine organisms such as shrimp and fish. Such arsenic is mainly made up of arsenobetaine and arsenocholine, organic arsenic compounds of low toxicity.

    Arsine gas and the substituted arsines. Arsine gas is used in organic syntheses and in the processing of solid-state electronic components. Arsine gas may also be generated inadvertently in industrial processes when nascent hydrogen is formed and arsenic is present.

    The substituted arsines are trivalent organic arsenical compounds which, depending on the number of alkyl or phenyl groups that they have attached to the arsenic nucleus, are known as mono-, di- or tri-substituted arsines. Dichloroethylarsine (C2H5AsCl2), or ethyldichloroarsine, is a colourless liquid with an irritant odour. This compound, like the following one, was developed as a potential chemical warfare agent.

    Dichloro(2-chlorovinyl-)arsine (ClCH:CHAsCl2), or chlorovinyldichloroarsine (lewisite), is an olive-green liquid with a germanium-like odour. It was developed as a potential warfare agent but never used. The agent dimercaprol or British anti-lewisite (BAL) was developed as an antidote.

    Dimethyl-arsine (CH3)2AsH, or cacodyl hydride and trimethylarsine (CH3)3As), or trimethylarsenic, are both colourless liquids. These two compounds can be produced after metabolic transformation of arsenic compounds by bacteria and fungi.

    Hazards

    Inorganic arsenic compounds

    General aspects of toxicity. Although it is possible that very small amounts of certain arsenic compounds may have beneficial effects, as indicated by some animal studies, arsenic compounds, particularly the inorganic ones, are otherwise regarded as very potent poisons. Acute toxicity varies widely among compounds, depending on their valency state and solubility in biological media. The soluble trivalent compounds are the most toxic. Uptake of inorganic arsenic compounds from the gastrointestinal tract is almost complete, but uptake may be delayed for less soluble forms such as arsenic trioxide in particle form. Uptake after inhalation is also almost complete, since even less soluble material deposited on the respiratory mucosa, will be transferred to the gastrointestinal tract and subsequently taken up.

    Occupational exposure to inorganic arsenic compounds through inhalation, ingestion or skin contact with subsequent absorption may occur in industry. Acute effects at the point of entry may occur if exposure is excessive. Dermatitis may occur as an acute symptom but is more often the result of toxicity from long-term exposure, sometimes subsequent to sensitization (see the section “Long-term exposure (chronic poisoning)”).

    Acute poisoning

    Exposure to high doses of inorganic arsenic compounds by a combination of inhalation and ingestion may occur as a result of accidents in industries where large amounts of arsenic (e.g., arsenic trioxide), are handled. Depending on dose, various symptoms may develop, and when doses are excessive, fatal cases may occur. Symptoms of conjunctivitis, bronchitis and dyspnoea, followed by gastrointestinal discomfort with vomiting, and subsequently cardiac involvement with irreversible shock, may occur in a time course of hours. Arsenic in blood was reported to be above 3 mg/l in a case with fatal outcome.

    With exposure to sub-lethal doses of irritant arsenic compounds in air (e.g., arsenic trioxide), there may be symptoms related to acute damage to the mucous membranes of the respiratory system and acute symptoms from exposed skin. Severe irritation of the nasal mucosae, larynx and bronchi, as well as conjunctivitis and dermatitis, occur in such cases. Perforation of the nasal septum can be observed in some individuals only after a few weeks following exposure. A certain tolerance against acute poisoning is believed to develop upon repeated exposure. This phenomenon, however, is not well documented in the scientific literature.

    Effects due to accidental ingestion of inorganic arsenicals, mainly arsenic trioxide, have been described in the literature. However, such incidents are rare in industry today. Cases of poisoning are characterized by profound gastrointestinal damage, resulting in severe vomiting and diarrhoea, which may result in shock and subsequent oliguria and albuminuria. Other acute symptoms are facial oedema, muscular cramps and cardiac abnormalities. Symptoms may occur within a few minutes following exposure to the poison in solution, but may be delayed for several hours if the arsenic compound is in solid form or if it is taken with a meal. When ingested as a particulate, toxicity is also dependent on solubility and particle size of the ingested compound. The fatal dose of ingested arsenic trioxide has been reported to range from 70 to 180 mg. Death may occur within 24 hours, but the usual course runs from 3 to 7 days. Acute intoxication with arsenic compounds is usually accompanied by anaemia and leucopenia, especially granulocytopenia. In survivors these effects are usually reversible within 2 to 3 weeks. Reversible enlargement of the liver is also seen in acute poisoning, but liver function tests and liver enzymes are usually normal.

    In individuals surviving acute poisoning, peripheral nervous disturbances frequently develop a few weeks after ingestion.

    Long-term exposure (chronic poisoning)

    General aspects. Chronic arsenic poisoning may occur in workers exposed for a long time to excessive concentrations of airborne arsenic compounds. Local effects in the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract and the skin are prominent features. Involvement of the nervous and circulatory system and the liver may also occur, as well as cancer of the respiratory tract.

    With long-term exposure to arsenic via ingestion in food, drinking water or medication, symptoms are partly different from those after inhalation exposure. Vague abdominal symptoms—diarrhoea or constipation, flushing of the skin, pigmentation and hyperkeratosis—dominate the clinical picture. In addition, there may be vascular involvement, reported in one area to have given rise to peripheral gangrene.

    Anaemia and leucocytopenia often occur in chronic arsenic poisoning. Liver involvement has been more commonly seen in persons exposed for a long time via oral ingestion than in those exposed via inhalation, particularly in vineyard workers considered to have been exposed mainly through drinking contaminated wine. Skin cancer occurs with excess frequency in this type of poisoning.

    Vascular disorders. Long-term oral exposure to inorganic arsenic via drinking water may give rise to peripheral vascular disorders with Raynaud’s phenomenon. In one area of Taiwan, China, peripheral gangrene (so-called Blackfoot disease) has occurred. Such severe manifestations of peripheral vascular involvement have not been observed in occupationally exposed persons, but slight changes with Raynaud’s phenomenon and an increased prevalence of low peripheral blood presssure on cooling have been found in workers exposed for a long time to airborne inorganic arsenic (doses of absorbed arsenic are given below.

    Dermatological disorders. Arsenical skin lesions differ somewhat, depending on the type of exposure. Eczematoid symptoms of varying degrees of severity do occur. In occupational exposure to mainly airborne arsenic, skin lesions may result from local irritation. Two types of dermatological disorders may occur:

    1. an eczematous type with erythema (redness), swelling and papules or vesicles
    2. a follicular type with erythema and follicular swelling or follicular pustules.

       

      Dermatitis is primarily localized on the most heavily exposed areas, such as the face, back of the neck, forearms, wrists and hands. However, it may also occur on the scrotum, the inner surfaces of the thighs, the upper chest and back, the lower legs and around the ankles. Hyperpigmentation and keratoses are not prominent features of this type of arsenical lesions. Patch tests have demonstrated that the dermatitis is due to arsenic, not to impurities present in the crude arsenic trioxide. Chronic dermal lesions may follow this type of initial reaction, depending on the concentration and duration of exposure. These chronic lesions may occur after many years of occupational or environmental exposure. Hyperkeratosis, warts and melanosis of the skin are the conspicuous signs.

      Melanosis is most commonly seen on the upper and lower eyelids, around the temples, on the neck, on the areolae of the nipples and in the folds of the axillae. In severe cases arsenomelanosis is observed on the abdomen, chest, back and scrotum, along with hyperkeratosis and warts. In chronic arsenic poisoning, depigmentation (i.e., leukoderma), especially on the pigmented areas, commonly called “raindrop” pigmentation, also occurs. These chronic skin lesions, particularly the hyperkeratoses, may develop into pre-cancerous and cancerous lesions. A transverse striation of the nails (so-called Mees lines) also occurs in chronic arsenical poisoning. It should be noted that the chronic skin lesions may develop long after cessation of exposure, when arsenic concentrations in skin have returned to normal.

      Mucous membrane lesions in chronic arsenic exposure is most classically reported as perforation of the nasal septum after inhalation exposure. This lesion is a result of irritation of the mucous membranes of the nose. Such irritation also extends to the larynx, trachea and bronchi. Both in inhalation exposure and in poisoning caused by repeated ingestion, dermatitis of the face and eyelids sometimes extends to keratoconjunctivitis.

      Peripheral neuropathy. Peripheral nervous disturbances are frequently encountered in survivors of acute poisoning. They usually start within a few weeks after the acute poisoning, and recovery is slow. The neuropathy is characterized by both motor dysfunction and paresthaesia, but in less severe cases only sensory unilateral neuropathy may occur. Often the lower extremities are more affected than the upper ones. In subjects recovering from arsenical poisoning, Mees lines of the fingernails may develop. Histological examination has revealed Wallerian degeneration, especially in the longer axons. Peripheral neuropathy also may occur in industrial arsenic exposure, in most cases in a subclinical form that can be detected only by neurophysiological methods. In a group of smelter workers with long-term exposure corresponding to a mean cumulative total absorption of approximately 5 g (maximal absorption of 20 g), there was a negative correlation between cumulative absorption of arsenic and nerve conduction velocity. There were also some light clinical manifestations of peripheral vascular involvement in these workers (see above). In children exposed to arsenic, hearing loss has been reported.

      Carcinogenic effects. Inorganic arsenic compounds are classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as lung and skin carcinogens. There is also some evidence to suggest that persons exposed to inorganic arsenic compounds suffer a higher incidence of angiosarcoma of the liver and possibly of stomach cancer. Cancer of the respiratory tract has been reported in excess frequency among workers engaged in the production of insecticides containing lead arsenate and calcium arsenate, in vine-growers spraying insecticides containing inorganic copper and arsenic compounds, and in smelter workers exposed to inorganic compounds of arsenic and a number of other metals. The latency time between onset of exposure and the appearance of cancer is long, usually between 15 and 30 years. A synergistic action of tobacco smoking has been demonstrated for lung cancer.

      Long-term exposure to inorganic arsenic via drinking water has been associated with an increased incidence of skin cancer in Taiwan and in Chile. This increase has been shown to be related to concentration in drinking water.

      Teratogenic effects. High doses of trivalent inorganic arsenic compounds may cause malformations in hamsters when injected intravenously. With regard to human beings there is no firm evidence that arsenic compounds cause malformations under industrial conditions. Some evidence, however, suggests such an effect in workers in a smelting environment who were exposed simultaneously also to a number of other metals as well as other compounds.

      Organic arsenic compounds

      Organic arsenicals used as pesticides or as drugs may also give rise to toxicity, although such adverse effects are incompletely documented in humans.

      Toxic effects on the nervous system have been reported in experimental animals following feeding with high doses of arsanilic acid, which is commonly used as a feed additive in poultry and swine.

      The organic arsenic compounds that occur in foodstuffs of marine origin, such as shrimp, crab and fish, are made up of arsinocholine and arsinobetaine. It is well known that the amounts of organic arsenic that are present in fish and shellfish can be consumed without ill effects. These compounds are quickly excreted, mainly via urine.

      Arsine gas and the substituted arsines. Many cases of acute arsine poisoning have been recorded, and there is a high fatality rate. Arsine is one of the most powerful haemolytic agents found in industry. Its haemolytic activity is due to its ability to cause a fall in erythrocyte-reduced glutathion content.

      Signs and symptoms of arsine poisoning include haemolysis, which develops after a latent period that is dependent on the intensity of exposure. Inhalation of 250 ppm of arsine gas is instantly lethal. Exposure to 25 to 50 ppm for 30 minutes is lethal, and 10 ppm may be lethal after longer exposures. The signs and symptoms of poisoning are those characteristic of an acute and massive haemolysis. Initially there is a painless haemoglobinuria, gastrointestinal disturbance such as nausea and possibly vomiting. There may also be abdominal cramps and tenderness. Jaundice accompanied by anuria and oliguria subsequently occurs. Evidence of bone marrow depression may be present. After acute and severe exposure, a peripheral neuropathy may develop and can still be present several months after poisoning. Little is known about repeated or chronic exposure to arsine, but since the arsine gas is metabolized to inorganic arsenic in the body, it can be assumed that there is a risk for symptoms similar to those in long-term exposure to inorganic arsenic compounds.

      The differential diagnosis should take account of acute haemolytic anaemias that could be caused by other chemical agents such as stibine or drugs, and secondary immunohaemolytic anaemias.

      The substituted arsines do not give rise to haemolysis as their main effect, but they act as powerful local and pulmonary irritants and systemic poisons. The local effect on the skin gives rise to sharply circumscribed blisters in the case of dichloro(2-chlorovinyl-)arsine (lewisite). The vapour induces marked spasmodic coughing with frowzy or blood-stained sputum, progressing to acute pulmonary oedema. Dimercaprol (BAL) is an effective antidote if given in the early stages of poisoning.

      Safety and Health Measures

      The most common type of occupational arsenic exposure is to inorganic arsenic compounds, and these safety and health measures are mainly related to such exposures. When there is a risk of exposure to arsine gas, particular attention needs to be paid to accidental leaks, since peak exposures for short intervals may be of special concern.

      The best means of prevention is to keep exposure well below accepted exposure limits. A programme of measurement of air-concentrations of arsenic is thus of importance. In addition to inhalation exposure, oral exposure via contaminated clothes, hands, tobacco and so on should be watched, and biological monitoring of inorganic arsenic in urine may be useful for evaluation of absorbed doses. Workers should be supplied with suitable protective clothing, protective boots and, when there is a risk that the exposure limit for airborne arsenic will be exceeded, respiratory protective equipment. Lockers should be provided with separate compartments for work and personal clothes, and adjacent sanitary facilities of a high standard should be made available. Smoking, eating and drinking at the workplace should not be allowed. Pre-employment medical examinations should be carried out. It is not recommended to employ persons with pre-existing diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, anaemia, allergic or other skin diseases, neurologic, hepatic or renal lesions, in arsenic work. Periodic medical examinations of all arsenic-exposed employees should be performed with special attention to possible arsenic-related symptoms.

      Determination of the level of inorganic arsenic and its metabolites in urine allows estimation of the total dose of inorganic arsenic taken up by various exposure routes. Only when inorganic arsenic and its metabolites can be specifically measured is this method useful. Total arsenic in urine may often give erroneous information about industrial exposure, since even a single meal of fish or other marine organisms (containing considerable amounts of non-toxic organic arsenic compound) may cause greatly elevated urinary arsenic concentrations for several days.

      Treatment

      Arsine gas poisoning. When there is reason to believe that there has been considerable exposure to arsine gas, or upon observation of the first symptoms (e.g., haemoglobinuria and abdominal pain), immediate removal of the individual from the contaminated environment and prompt medical attention are required. The recommended treatment, if there is any evidence of impaired renal function, consists of total-replacement blood transfusion associated with prolonged artificial dialysis. Forced diuresis has proved useful in some cases, whereas, in the opinion of most authors, treatment with BAL or other chelating agents seems to have only limited effect.

      Exposure to the substituted arsines should be treated in the same way as inorganic arsenic poisoning (see below).

      Poisoning by inorganic arsenic. If there has been exposure to doses that can be estimated to give rise to acute poisoning, or if severe symptoms from the respiratory system, the skin or the gastrointestinal tract occur in the course of long-term exposures, the worker should immediately be removed from exposure and treated with a complexing agent.

      The classical agent which has been used most widely in such situations is 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanol or British anti-lewisite (BAL, dimercaprol). Prompt administration in such cases is vital: to obtain maximal benefit such treatment should be given within 4 hours of poisoning. Other pharmaceuticals which may be used are sodium 2,3-dimercaptopropanesulphonate (DMPS or unithiol) or meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA). These drugs are less likely to give side effects and are believed to be more effective than BAL. Intravenous administration of N-acetylcysteine has been reported in one case to be of value; in addition, general treatment, such as prevention of further absorption by removal from exposure and minimizing absorption from the gastrointestinal tract by gastric lavage and administration by gastric tube of chelating agents or charcoal, is mandatory. General supportive therapy, such as maintenance of respiration and circulation, maintenance of water and electrolyte balance, and control of nervous system effects, as well as elimination of absorbed poison through haemodialysis and exchange transfusion, may be used if feasible.

      Acute skin lesions such as contact dermatitis and mild manifestations of peripheral vascular involvement, such as Raynaud’s syndrome, usually do not require treatment other than removal from exposure.

       

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      Published in 63. Metals: Chemical Properties and Toxicity
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      Thursday, 10 February 2011 03:00

      Barium

      Gunnar Nordberg

      Occurrence and Uses

      Barium (Ba) is abundant in nature and accounts for approximately 0.04% of the earth’s crust. The chief sources are the minerals barite (barium sulphate, BaSO4) and witherite (barium carbonate, BaCO3). Barium metal is produced in only limited quantities, by aluminium reduction of barium oxide in a retort.

      Barium is used extensively in the manufacture of alloys for nickel barium parts found in ignition equipment for automobiles and in the manufacture of glass, ceramics and television picture tubes. Barite (BaSO4), or barium sulphate, is primarily used in the manufacture of lithopone, a white powder containing 20% barium sulphate, 30% zinc sulphide and less than 8% zinc oxide. Lithopone is widely employed as a pigment in white paints. Chemically precipitated barium sulphate—blanc fixe—is used in high-quality paints, in x-ray diagnostic work and in the glass and paper industries. It is also used in the manufacture of photographic papers, artificial ivory and cellophane. Crude barite is used as a thixotropic mud in oil-well drilling.

      Barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)2) is found in lubricants, pesticides, the sugar industry, corrosion inhibitors, drilling fluids and water softeners. It is also used in glass manufacture, synthetic rubber vulcanization, animal and vegetable oil refining, and fresco painting. Barium carbonate (BaCO3) is obtained as a precipitate of barite and is used in the brick, ceramics, paint, rubber, oil-well drilling and paper industries. It also finds use in enamels, marble substitutes, optical glass and electrodes.

      Barium oxide (BaO) is a white alkaline powder which is used to dry gases and solvents. At 450°C it combines with oxygen to produce barium peroxide (BaO2), an oxidizing agent in organic synthesis and a bleaching material for animal substances and vegetable fibres. Barium peroxide is used in the textile industry for dyeing and printing, in powder aluminium for welding and in pyrotechnics.

      Barium chloride (BaCl2) is obtained by roasting barite with coal and calcium chloride, and is used in the manufacture of pigments, colour lakes and glass, and as a mordant for acid dyes. It is also useful for weighting and dyeing textile fabrics and in aluminium refining. Barium chloride is a pesticide, a compound added to boilers for softening water, and a tanning and finishing agent for leather. Barium nitrate (Ba(NO3)2) is used in pyrotechnics and the electronics industries.

      Hazards

      Barium metal has only limited use and presents an explosion hazard. The soluble compounds of barium (chloride, nitrate, hydroxide) are highly toxic; the inhalation of the insoluble compounds (sulphate) may give rise to pneumoconiosis. Many of the compounds, including the sulphide, oxide and carbonate, may cause local irritation to the eyes, nose, throat and skin. Certain compounds, particularly the peroxide, nitrate and chlorate, present fire hazards in use and storage.

      Toxicity

      When the soluble compounds enter by the oral route they are highly toxic, with a fatal dose of the chloride thought to be 0.8 to 0.9 g. However, although poisoning due to the ingestion of these compounds does occasionally occur, very few cases of industrial poisoning have been reported. Poisoning may result when workers are exposed to atmospheric concentrations of the dust of soluble compounds such as may occur during grinding. These compounds exert a strong and prolonged stimulant action on all forms of muscle, markedly increasing contractility. In the heart, irregular contractions may be followed by fibrillation, and there is evidence of a coronary constrictor action. Other effects include intestinal peristalsis, vascular constriction, bladder contraction and an increase in voluntary muscle tension. Barium compounds also have irritant effects on mucous membranes and the eye.

      Barium carbonate, an insoluble compound, does not appear to have pathological effects from inhalation; however, it can cause severe poisoning from oral intake, and in rats it impairs the function of the male and female gonads; the foetus is sensitive to barium carbonate during the first half of pregnancy.

      Pneumoconiosis

      Barium sulphate is characterized by its extreme insolubility, a property which makes it non-toxic to humans. For this reason and due to its high radio-opacity, barium sulphate is used as an opaque medium in x-ray examination of the gastrointestinal, respiratory and urinary systems. It is also inert in the human lung, as has been demonstrated by its lack of adverse effects following deliberate introduction into the bronchial tract as a contrast medium in bronchography and by industrial exposure to high concentrations of fine dust.

      Inhalation, however, may lead to deposition in the lungs in sufficient quantities to produce baritosis (a benign pneumoconiosis, which principally occurs in the mining, grinding and bagging of barite, but has been reported in the manufacture of lithopone). The first reported case of baritosis was accompanied by symptoms and disability, but these were associated later with other lung disease. Subsequent studies have contrasted the unimpressive nature of the clinical picture and the total absence of symptoms and abnormal physical signs with the well marked x-ray changes, which show disseminated nodular opacities throughout both lungs. The opacities are discrete but sometimes so numerous as to overlap and appear confluent. No massive shadows have been reported. The outstanding feature of the radiographs is the marked radio-opacity of the nodules, which is understandable in view of the substance’s use as a radio-opaque medium. The size of the individual elements may vary between 1 and 5 mm in diameter, although the average is about 3 mm or less, and the shape has been described variously as “rounded” and “dendritic”. In some cases, a number of very dense points have been found to lie in a matrix of lower density.

      In one series of cases, dust concentrations of up to 11,000 particles/cm3 were measured at the workplace, and chemical analysis showed that the total silica content lay between 0.07 and 1.96%, quartz not being detectable by x-ray diffraction. Men exposed for up to 20 years and exhibiting x-ray changes were symptomless, had excellent lung function and were capable of carrying out strenuous work. Years after the exposure has ceased, follow-up examinations show a marked clearing of x-ray abnormalities.

      Reports of post-mortem findings in pure baritosis are practically non-existent. However, baritosis may be associated with silicosis in mining due to contamination of barite ore by siliceous rock, and, in grinding, if siliceous millstones are used.

      Safety and Health Measures

      Adequate washing and other sanitary facilities should be provided for workers exposed to toxic soluble barium compounds, and rigorous personal hygiene measures should be encouraged. Smoking and consumption of food and beverages in workshops should be prohibited. Floors in workshops should be made of impermeable materials and frequently washed down. Employees working on such processes as barite leaching with sulphuric acid should be supplied with acid-resistant clothing and suitable hand and face protection. Although baritosis is benign, efforts should still be made to reduce atmospheric concentrations of barite dust to a minimum. In addition, particular attention should be paid to the presence of free silica in the airborne dust.

       

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      Published in 63. Metals: Chemical Properties and Toxicity
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