In ancient times, the art of sculpture included engraving and carving of stone, wood, bone and other materials. Later, sculpture developed and refined modelling techniques in clay and plaster, and moulding and welding techniques in metals and glass. During the last century various additional materials and techniques have been used for the art of sculpture, including plastic foams, paper, found materials and several sources of energy such as light, kinetic energy and so on. The aim of many modern sculptors is to involve the viewer actively.

Sculpture often utilizes the natural colour of the material or treats its surface to achieve a certain colour or to emphasize the natural characteristics or to modify the light reflections. Such techniques belong to the finishing touches of the art piece. Health and safety risks for artists and their assistants arise from the characteristics of the materials; from the use of tools and equipment; from the various forms of energy (mainly electricity) used for the functioning of tools; and from heat for welding and fusing techniques.

Artists’ lack of information and their focusing on the work lead to underestimating the importance of safety; this can result in serious accidents and the development of occupational diseases.

The risks are sometimes linked to the design of the workplace or to the organization of the work (e.g., carrying out many working operations at the same time). Such risks are common to all workplaces, but in the arts and crafts environment they can have more serious outcomes.

General Precautions

These include: appropriate design of the studio, considering the type of power sources employed and the placement and movement of the artistic material; segregation of hazardous operations controlled with adequate warning displays; installation of exhaust systems for control and removal of powders, gases, fumes, vapours and aerosols; use of well-fitted and convenient personal protective equipment; efficient clean-up facilities, such as showers, sinks, eye-wash fountains and so on; knowledge of the risks associated with the use of chemical substances and of the regulations that govern their use, in order to avoid or at least reduce their potential harm; keeping informed on the possible risks of accidents and on hygiene regulations and being trained in first aid and. Local ventilation to remove airborne dust is necessary at its source, when it is produced in abundance. Daily vacuum cleaning, either wet or dry, or wet mopping of the floor and of work surfaces is highly recommended.

Main Sculpturing Techniques

Stone sculpture involves carving hard and soft stones, precious stones, plaster, cement and so on. Sculpture shaping involves work on more pliable materials—plaster and clay modelling and casting, wood sculpture, metalworking, glassblowing, plastic sculpture, sculpture in other materials and mixed techniques. See also the articles “Metalworking” and “Woodworking”. Glassblowing is discussed in the chapter Glass, ceramics and related materials.

Stone sculptures

Stones used for sculpture can be divided into soft stones and hard stones. The soft stones can be worked manually with tools such as saws, chisels, hammers and rasps, as well as with electric tools.

Hard stones such as granite, and other materials, such as cement blocks, can be used to create works of art and ornaments. This involves working with electric or pneumatic tools. The final stages of the work can be partially executed by hand.

Risks

Prolonged inhalation of high quantities of certain stone dusts containing free crystalline silica, which comes out of freshly cut surfaces, can lead to silicosis. Electric and pneumatic tools can cause a higher concentration in the air of dust which is finer than that produced by manual tools. Marble, travertine and limestone are inert materials and not pathogenic to the lungs; plaster (calcium sulphate) is irritating to the skin and to the mucous membranes.

Asbestos fibre inhalation, even in small quantities, can lead to a risk of lung cancer (laryngeal, tracheal, bronchial, lung and pleural malignancies) and probably also cancer of the digestive tract and of other organ systems. Such fibres can be found as impurities in serpentine and in talc. Asbestosis (fibrosis of the lung) can be contracted only through the inhalation of high doses of asbestos fibres, which is unlikely at this type of work. See table  1 for a list of the hazards of common stones.

Table 1. Hazards of common stones.

High noise levels can be produced by the use of pneumatic hammers, electric saws and sanders, as well as manual tools. This can result in hearing loss and other effects on the autonomic nervous system (increase of heart rate, gastric disturbances and so on), psychological problems (irritability, attention deficits and so on), as well as general health problems, including headaches.

The use of electric and pneumatic tools can provoke damage to finger micro-circulation with the possibility of Raynaud’s phenomenon, and facilitate degenerative phenomena to the upper arm.

Work in difficult positions and lifting heavy objects can produce low-back pain, muscle strains, arthritis and joint bursitis (knee, elbow).

The risk of accidents is frequently connected with the use of sharp tools moved by powerful forces (manual, electric or pneumatic). Often stone splinters are violently shot into the working environment during the breaking of stones; falling or rolling of improperly fixed blocks or surfaces also occurs. The use of water can lead to slipping on wet floors, and to electric shocks.

Pigment and colourant substances (especially of spray type) used to cover the final layer (paints, lakes) expose the worker to the risk of inhalation of toxic compounds (lead, chromium, nickel) or of irritating or allergenic compounds (acrylic or resins). This can affect the mucous membranes as well as the respiratory tract.

Inhalation of evaporating paints solvents in high quantities over the course of the working day or in lower concentrations for longer periods, can provoke acute or chronic toxic effects on the central nervous system.

Precautions

Alabaster is a safer substitute for soapstone and other hazardous soft stones.

Pneumatic or electric tools with portable dust collectors should be used. The working environment should be cleaned frequently using vacuum cleaners or wet mopping; adequate general ventilation must be provided.

The respiratory system can be protected from the inhalation of dusts, solvents and aerosol vapours through use of proper respirators. Hearing can be protected with ear plugs and eyes can be protected with proper goggles. To reduce the risk of hand accidents leather gloves (when necessary) or lighter rubber gloves, lined with cotton, should be used to prevent contact with chemical substances. Anti-slipping and safety shoes should be used to prevent damage to the feet caused by the possible fall of heavy objects. During complicated and long operations, proper clothes should be worn; ties, jewellery and clothes which could easily get stuck in the machines should not be worn. Long hair should be put up or under a cap. A shower should be taken at the end of every work period; work clothes and shoes should never be taken home.

Pneumatic tool compressors should be placed out of the work area; noisy areas should be insulated; numerous breaks should be taken in warm areas during the working day. Pneumatic and electric tools equipped with comfortable handles (better if equipped with mechanical shock absorbers) which are able to direct the air away from the hands of the operator should be used; stretching and massage are suggested during the work period.

Sharp tools should be operated as far as possible from hands and body; broken tools should not be used.

Flammable substances (paints, solvents) must be kept far from flames, lit cigarettes and heat sources.

Sculpture shaping

The most common material used for sculpture shaping is clay (mixed with water or naturally soft clay); wax, plaster, concrete and plastic (sometimes reinforced with glass fibres) are also commonly used.

The facility with which a sculpture is shaped is directly proportional to the malleability of the material used. A tool (wood, metal, plastic) is often used.

Some materials, such as clays, can become hard after being heated in a furnace or kiln. Also, talc can be used as semi-liquid clay (slip), which can be poured into moulds and then fired in a kiln after drying.

These types of clays are similar to those used in the ceramic industry and may contain considerable amounts of free crystalline silica. See the article “Ceramics”.

Non-hardening clays, such as plasticine, contain fine particles of clays mixed with vegetable oils, preservatives and sometimes solvents. The hardening clays, also called polymer clays, are actually formed with polyvinyl chloride, with plasticizing materials such as various phthalates.

Wax is usually shaped by pouring it into a mould after it is heated, but it can also be formed with heated tools. Wax can be of natural or synthetic compounds (coloured waxes). Many types of waxes can be dissolved with solvents such as alcohol, acetone, mineral or white spirits, ligroin and carbon tetrachloride.

Plaster, concrete and papier mâché have different characteristics: it is not necessary to heat or to melt them; they are usually worked on a metal or fibreglass frame, or cast in moulds.

Plastic sculpture techniques can be divided into two main areas:

• work with already polymerized materials (casting, plate or sheet). They can be heated, softened, glued, cut, refined, refurbished and so on.

• work with non-polymerized plastic. The material is worked with monomers, obtaining a chemical reaction leading to polymerization.

Plastics can be formed by polyester, polyurethane, amino, phenolic, acrylic, epoxy and silicon resins. During polymerization, they can be poured into moulds, applied by hand layup, printed, laminated and skimmed by using catalyzers, accelerators, hardeners, loads and pigments.

See table 2 for a list of the hazards and precautions for common sculpture shaping materials.

Table 2. Main risks associated with material used for sculpture shaping.

Back

Black-and-White Processing

In black-and-white photographic processing, exposed film or paper is removed from a light-tight container in a darkroom and sequentially immersed in trays containing aqueous solutions of developer, stop bath and fixer. After a water washing and drying, the film or paper is ready for use. The developer reduces the light-exposed silver halide to metallic silver. The stop bath is a weakly acidic solution that neutralizes the alkaline developer solution and stops further reduction of the silver halide. The fixer forms a soluble complex with the unexposed silver halide, which, together with various water-soluble salts, buffers and halide ions, is subsequently removed from the emulsion in the washing process. Rolls of film are usually processed in closed canisters to which the various solutions are added.

Potential health hazards

Because of the wide variety of formulae used by various suppliers, and different methods of packaging and mixing photoprocessing chemicals, only a few generalizations can be made regarding the types of chemical hazards in black-and-white photoprocessing. The most frequent health issue is the potential for contact dermatitis, which most frequently arises from skin contact with developer solutions. Developer solutions are alkaline and usually contain hydroquinone; in some cases they may contain p-methylaminophenolsulphate (also known as Metol or KODAK ELON) as well. Developers are skin and eye irritants and may cause an allergic skin reaction in sensitive individuals. Acetic acid is the principal hazardous component in most stop baths. Although concentrated stop baths are strongly acidic and may cause skin and eye burns following direct contact, the working-strength solutions are usually slight to moderate skin and eye irritants. Fixers contain photographic hypo (sodium thiosulphate) and various sulphite salts (e.g., sodium metabisulphite), and present a low health hazard.

In addition to potential skin and eye hazards, gases or vapours emitted from some photoprocessing solutions may present an inhalation hazard, as well as contribute to unpleasant odours, especially in poorly ventilated areas. Some photochemicals (e.g., fixers) may emit gases such as ammonia or sulphur dioxide resulting from the degradation of ammonium or sulphite salts, respectively. These gases may be irritating to the upper respiratory tract and eyes. In addition, acetic acid emitted from stop baths may also be irritating to the upper respiratory tract and eyes. The irritant effect of these gases or vapours is concentration dependent and is usually observed only at concentrations that exceed occupational exposure limits. However, because of a wide variation in individual susceptibility, some individuals (e.g., persons with pre-existing medical conditions such as asthma) may experience effects at concentrations below occupational exposure limits. Some of these chemicals may be detectable by odour because of the chemical’s low odour threshold. Although the odour of a chemical is not necessarily indicative of a health hazard, strong odours or odours that are increasing in intensity may indicate that the ventilation system is inadequate and should be reviewed.

Risk management

The key to working safely with photoprocessing chemicals is to understand the potential health hazards of exposure and to manage the risk to an acceptable level. Recognition and control of potential hazards begins with reading and understanding product labels and safety data sheets.

Avoiding skin contact is an important goal in darkroom safety. Neoprene gloves are particularly useful in reducing skin contact, especially in mixing areas where more concentrated solutions are encountered. Gloves should be of sufficient thickness to prevent tears and leaks, and should be inspected and cleaned frequently—preferably thorough washing of the outer and inner surfaces with a non-alkaline hand cleaner. In addition to gloves, tongs may also be used to prevent skin contact; barrier creams are not appropriate for use with photochemicals because they are not impervious to all photochemicals and may contaminate processing solutions. A protective apron, smock or lab coat should be worn in the darkroom, and frequent laundering of work clothing is desirable. Protective goggles also should be used, especially in areas where concentrated photochemicals are handled.

If photoprocessing chemicals contact the skin, the affected area should be flushed as rapidly as possible with copious amounts of water. Because materials such as developers are alkaline, washing with a non-alkaline hand cleaner (pH of 5.0 to 5.5) may aid in reducing the potential to develop dermatitis. Clothing should be changed immediately if there is any contamination with chemicals, and spills or splashes should be immediately cleaned up. Hand-washing facilities and provisions for rinsing the eyes are particularly important in the mixing and processing areas. If concentrated or glacial acetic acid is used, emergency shower facilities should be available.

Adequate ventilation is also a key factor to safety in the darkroom. The amount of ventilation required varies according to room conditions and processing chemicals. General room ventilation (e.g., 4.25 m³/min supply and 4.8 m³/min exhaust, equivalent to ten air changes per hour in a 3 x 3 x 3 m room), with a minimum outside air replenishment rate of 0.15 m³/min/m² floor area, is usually adequate for photographers who undertake basic black-and-white photoprocessing. The exhaust air should be discharged outside the building to avoid redistributing potential air contaminants. Special procedures such as toning (which involves the replacement of silver by silver sulphide, selenium or other metals), intensifying (which involves making parts of the image darker by the use of chemicals such as potassium dichromate or potassium chlorochromate) and mixing operations (where concentrated solutions or powders are handled) may require supplementary local exhaust ventilation or respiratory protection.

Colour Processing

There are a number of colour processes that are more complex and also involve the use of potentially hazardous chemicals. Colour processing is described in the chapter Printing, photography, and reproduction industries. As with black-and-white photoprocessing, avoiding skin and eye contact and providing adequate ventilation are key factors to safety in colour processing.

Back

Metalworking involves casting, welding, brazing, forging, soldering, fabrication and surface treatment of metal. Metalworking is becoming even more common as artists in developing countries are also starting to use metal as a basic sculptural material. While many art foundries are commercially run, art foundries are also often part of college art programmes.

Hazards and Precautions

Casting and foundry

Artists either send work out to commercial foundries, or can cast metal in their own studios. The lost wax process is often used for casting small pieces. Common metals and alloys used are bronze, aluminium, brass, pewter, iron and stainless steel. Gold, silver and sometimes platinum are used for casting small pieces, particularly for jewellery.

The lost wax process involves several steps:

1. making the positive form
2. making the investment mould
3. burning out of the wax
4. melting the metal
5. slagging
6. pouring the molten metal into the mould
7. removing the mould

The positive form can be made directly in wax; it can also be made in plaster or other materials, a negative mould made in rubber and then the final positive form cast in wax. Heating the wax can result in fire hazards and in decomposition of the wax from overheating.

The mould is commonly made by applying an investment containing the cristobalite form of silica, creating the risk of silicosis. A 50/50 mixture of plaster and 30-mesh sand is a safer substitute. Moulds can also be made using sand and oil, formaldehyde resins and other resins as binders. Many of these resins are toxic by skin contact and inhalation, requiring skin protection and ventilation.

The wax form is burnt out in a kiln. This requires local exhaust ventilation to remove the acrolein and other irritating wax decomposition products.

Melting the metal is usually done in a gas-fired crucible furnace. A canopy hood exhausted to the outside is needed to remove carbon monoxide and metal fumes, including zinc, copper, lead, aluminium and so on.

The crucible containing the molten metal is then removed from the furnace, the slag on the surface removed and the molten metal poured into the moulds (figure 1). For weights under 80 pounds of metal, manual lifting is normal; for greater weights, lifting equipment is needed. Ventilation is needed for the slagging and pouring operations to remove metal fumes. Resin sand moulds can also produce hazardous decomposition products from the heat. Face shields protecting against infrared radiation and heat, and personal protective clothing resistant to heat and molten metal splashes are essential. Cement floors must be protected against molten metal splashes by a layer of sand.

Figure 1. Pouring molten metal in art foundry.

Ted Rickard

Breaking away the mould can result in exposure to silica. Local exhaust ventilation or respiratory protection is needed. A variation of the lost wax process called the foam vaporization process involves using polystyrene or polyurethane foam instead of wax, and vaporizing the foam during pouring of the molten metal. This can release hazardous decomposition products, including hydrogen cyanide from polyurethane foam. Artists often use scrap metal from a variety of sources. This practice can be dangerous due to possible presence of lead- and mercury-containing paints, and to the possible presence of metals like cadmium, chromium, nickel and so on in the metals.

Fabrication

Metal can be cut, drilled and filed using saws, drills, snips and metal files. The metal filings can irritate the skin and eyes. Electric tools can cause electric shock. Improper handling of these tools can result in accidents. Goggles are needed to protect the eyes from flying chips and filings. All electrical equipment should be properly grounded. All tools should be carefully handled and stored. Metal to be fabricated should be securely clamped to prevent accidents.

Forging

Cold forging utilizes hammers, mallets, anvils and similar tools to change the shape of metal. Hot forging involves additionally heating the metal. Forging can create great amounts of noise, which can cause hearing loss. Small metal splinters may damage the skin or eyes if precautions are not taken. Burns are also a hazard with hot forging. Precautions include good tools, eye protection, routine clean-up, proper work clothing, isolation of the forging area and wearing ear plugs or ear muffs.

Hot forging involves the burning of gas, coke or other fuels. A canopy hood for ventilation is needed to exhaust carbon monoxide and possible polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emissions, and to reduce heat build-up. Infrared goggles should be worn for protection against infrared radiation.

Surface treatment

Mechanical treatment (chasing, repousse) is done with hammers, engraving with sharp tools, etching with acids, photoetching with acids and photochemicals, electroplating (plating a metallic film onto another metal) and electroforming (plating a metallic film onto a non-metallic object) with acids and cyanide solutions and metal colouring with many chemicals.

Electroplating and electroforming often use cyanide salts, ingestion of which can be fatal. Accidental mixing of acids and the cyanide solution will produce hydrogen cyanide gas. This is hazardous through both skin absorption and inhalation—death can occur within minutes. Disposal and waste management of spent cyanide solutions is strictly regulated in many countries. Electroplating with cyanide solutions should be done in a commercial plant; otherwise use substitutes that do not contain cyanide salts or other cyanide-containing materials.

Acids are corrosive, and skin and eye protection is needed. Local exhaust ventilation with acid-resistant ductwork is recommended.

Anodizing metals such as titanium and tantalum involves oxidizing these at the anode of an electrolytic bath to colour them. Hydrofluoric acid can be used for precleaning. Avoid using hydrofluoric acid or use gloves, goggles and a protective apron.

Patinas used to colour metals can be applied cold or hot. Lead and arsenic compounds are very toxic in any form, and others can give off toxic gases when heated. Potassium ferricyanide solutions will give off hydrogen cyanide gas when heated, arsenic acid solutions give off arsine gas and sulphide solutions give off hydrogen sulphide gas. Very good ventilation is needed for metal colouring (figure 2). Arsenic compounds and heating of potassium ferrocyanide solutions should be avoided.

Figure 2. Applying a patina to metal with slot exhaust hood.

Ken Jones

Finishing processes

Cleaning, grinding, filing, sandblasting and polishing are some final treatments for metal. Cleaning involves the use of acids (pickling). This involves the hazards of handling acids and of the gases produced during the pickling process (such as nitrogen dioxide from nitric acid). Grinding can result in the production of fine metal dusts (which can be inhaled) and heavy flying particles (which are eye hazards).

Sandblasting (abrasive blasting) is very hazardous, particularly with actual sand. Inhalation of fine silica dust from sandblasting can cause silicosis in a short time. Sand should be replaced with glass beads, aluminium oxide or silicon carbide. Foundry slags should be used only if chemical analysis shows no silica or dangerous metals such as arsenic or nickel. Good ventilation or respiratory protection is needed.

Polishing with abrasives such as rouge (iron oxide) or tripoli can be hazardous since rouge can be contaminated with large amounts of free silica, and tripoli contains silica. Good ventilation of the polishing wheel is needed.

Welding

Physical hazards in welding include the danger of fire, electric shock from arc-welding equipment, burns caused by molten metal sparks, and injuries caused by excessive exposure to infrared and ultraviolet radiation. Welding sparks can travel 40 feet.

Infrared radiation can cause burns and eye damage. Ultraviolet radiation can cause sunburn; repeated exposure may lead to skin cancer. Electric arc welders in particular are subject to pink eye (conjunctivitis), and some have cornea damage from UV exposure. Skin protection and welding goggles with UV- and IR-protective lenses are needed.

Oxyacetylene torches produce carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and unburned acetylene, which is a mild intoxicant. Commercial acetylene contains small amounts of other toxic gases and impurities.

Compressed gas cylinders can be both explosive and fire hazards. All cylinders, connections and hoses must be carefully maintained and inspected. All gas cylinders must be stored in a location which is dry, well ventilated and secure from unauthorized persons. Fuel cylinders must be stored separately from oxygen cylinders.

Arc welding produces enough energy to convert the air’s nitrogen and oxygen to nitrogen oxides and ozone, which are lung irritants. When arc welding is done within 20 feet of chlorinated degreasing solvents, phosgene gas can be produced by the UV radiation.

Metal fumes are generated by the vaporization of metals, metal alloys and the electrodes used in arc welding. Fluoride fluxes produce fluoride fumes.

Ventilation is needed for all welding processes. While dilution ventilation may be adequate for mild steel welding, local exhaust ventilation is necessary for most welding operations. Moveable flanged hoods, or lateral slot hoods should be used. Respiratory protection is needed if ventilation is not available.

Many metal dusts and fumes can cause skin irritation and sensitization. These include brass dust (copper, zinc, lead and tin), cadmium, nickel, titanium and chromium.

In addition, there are problems with welding materials that may be coated with various substances (e.g., lead or mercury paint).

Back

This article describes the basic health and safety concerns associated with the use of lasers, neon sculpture and computers in the arts. Creative artists often work very intimately with the technology, and in experimental ways. This scenario too often increases the risk of injury. The primary concerns are for eye and skin protection, for reducing the possibilities of electrical shock and for preventing exposure to toxic chemicals.

Lasers

Laser radiation may be hazardous to the eyes and skin of artists and audiences by both direct viewing and reflection. The degree of laser injury is a function of power. Higher-power lasers are more likely to cause serious injury and more hazardous reflections. Lasers are classified and labelled by their manufacturer in classes I to IV. Class I lasers exhibit no laser radiation hazard and Class IV are very dangerous.

Artists have used all laser classes in their work, and most use visible wavelengths. Besides the safety controls required of any laser system, artistic applications require special considerations.

In laser exhibits, it is important to isolate the audience from direct beam contact and scattered radiation, using plastic or glass enclosures and opaque beam stops. For planetariums and other indoor light shows, it is critical to maintain direct beam or reflected laser radiation at Class I levels where the audience is exposed. Class III or IV laser radiation levels must be kept at safe distances from performers and the audience. Typical distances are 3 m away when an operator controls the laser and 6 m away without continuous operator control. Written procedures are needed for set-up, alignment and testing of Class III and IV lasers. Required safety controls include warning in advance of energizing these lasers, key controls, fail-safe safety interlocks and manual reset buttons for Class IV lasers. For Class IV lasers, appropriate laser goggles should be worn.

Scanning laser art displays often used in the performing arts use rapidly moving beams that are generally safer since the duration of inadvertent eye or skin contact with the beam is short. Still, operators must employ safeguards to ensure exposure limits will not be exceeded if the scanning equipment fails. Outdoor displays cannot allow aircraft to fly through hazardous beam levels, or the illumination with greater than Class I levels of radiation of tall buildings or personnel in high-reach equipment.

Holography is the process of producing a three-dimensional photograph of an object using lasers. Most images are displayed off-axis from the laser beam, and intrabeam viewing is typically not a hazard. A transparent display case around the hologram can help reduce the possibilities of injury. Some artists create permanent images from their holograms, and many chemicals used in the development process are toxic and must be managed for accident prevention. These include pyrogallic acid, alkalis, sulphuric and hydrobromic acids, bromine, parabenzoquinone and dichromate salts. Safer substitutes are available for most of these chemicals.

Lasers also have serious non-radiological hazards. Most performance-level lasers use high voltages and amperage, creating significant risks of electrocution, particularly during design stages and maintenance. Dye lasers use toxic chemicals for the active lasing medium, and high-powered lasers may generate toxic aerosols, especially when the beam strikes a target.

Neon Art

Neon art uses neon tubes to produce lighted sculptures. Neon signage for advertising is one application. Producing a neon sculpture involves bending leaded glass to the desired shape, bombarding the evacuated glass tube at a high voltage to remove impurities from the glass tube, and adding small amounts of neon gas or mercury. A high voltage is applied across electrodes sealed into each end of the tube to give the luminous effect by exciting the gases trapped in the tube. To obtain a wider range of colours, the glass tube can be coated with fluorescent phosphors, which convert the ultraviolet radiation from the mercury or neon into visible light. The high voltages are achieved by using step-up transformers.

Electrical shock is a threat mostly when the sculpture is connected to its bombarding transformer to remove impurities from the glass tube, or to its electrical power source for testing or display (figure 1). The electrical current passing through the glass tube also causes the emission of ultraviolet light that in turn interacts with the phosphor-covered glass to form colours. Some near-ultraviolet radiation (UVA) may pass through the glass and present an eye hazard to those nearby; therefore, eyewear that blocks UVA should be worn.

Figure 1. Neon sculpture manufacture showing an artist behind a protective barrier.

Fred Tschida

Some phosphors that coat the neon tube are potentially toxic (e.g., cadmium compounds). Sometimes mercury is added to the neon gas to create a particularly vivid blue colour. Mercury is highly toxic by inhalation and is volatile at room temperature.

Mercury should be added to the neon tube with great care and stored in unbreakable sealed containers. The artist should use trays to contain spillage, and mercury spill kits should be available. Mercury should not be vacuumed up, as this may disperse a mist of mercury through the vacuum cleaner’s exhaust.

Computer Art

Computers are used in art for a variety of purposes, including painting, displaying scanned photographic images, producing graphics for printing and television (e.g., on-screen credits), and for a variety of animated and other special effects for motion pictures and television. The latter is a rapidly expanding use of computer art. This can bring about ergonomic problems, typically due to repetitive tasks and uncomfortably arranged components. The predominant complaints are discomfort in the wrists, arms, shoulders and neck, and vision problems. Most complaints are of a minor nature, but disabling injuries such as chronic tendinitis or carpal tunnel syndrome are possible.

Creating with computers often involves long periods manipulating the keyboard or mouse, designing or fine tuning the product. It is important that computer users take a break away from the screen periodically. Short, frequent breaks are more effective than long breaks every couple of hours.

Regarding the proper arrangement of components and the user, design solutions for correct posture and visual comfort are the key. Computer work station components should be easy to adjust for the variety of tasks and people involved.

Eye strain may be prevented by taking periodic visual breaks, preventing glare and reflection and by placing the top of the monitor so that it is at eye level. Vision problems may also be avoided if the monitor has a refresh rate of 70 Hz, so that image flicker is reduced.

Many kinds of radiation effects are possible. Ultraviolet, visible, infrared, radio frequency and microwave radiation emissions from computer hardware are generally at or below normal background levels. The possible health effects of lower-frequency waves from the electrical circuitry and electronic components are not well understood. To date, however, no solid evidence identifies a health risk from exposure to the electromagnetic fields associated with computer monitors. Computer monitors do not emit hazardous levels of x rays.

Back