Wednesday, 02 March 2011 16:36

Hospitals: Environmental and Public Health Issues

Rate this item
(0 votes)

A hospital is not an isolated social environment; it has, given its mission, very serious intrinsic social responsibilities. A hospital needs to be integrated with its surroundings and should minimize its impact upon them, thus contributing to the welfare of the people who live near it.

From a regulatory perspective, the health industry has never been considered to be on the same level as other industries when they are ranked according to the health risks they pose. The result is that specific legislation in this sphere has been non-existent until recently, although in the last few years this deficiency has been addressed. While in many other kinds of industrial activities, health and safety is an integral part of the organization, most health centres still pay little or no attention to it.

One reason for this could be the attitudes of HCWs themselves, who may be preoccupied more with research and the acquisition of the latest technologies and diagnostic and treatment techniques than with looking into the effects that these advances could have on their own health and on the environment.

New developments in science and health care must be combined with environmental protection, because environmental policies in a hospital affect the quality of life of HCWs within the hospital and those who live outside it.

Integrated Health, Safety and Environmental Programmes

HCWs represent a major group, comparable in size to the large enterprises of the private sector. The number of people who pass through a hospital every day is very large: visitors, inpatients, outpatients, medical and commercial representatives, subcontractors and so on. All of them, to a greater or lesser degree, are exposed to the potential risks posed by the activities of the medical centre and, at the same time, contribute on a certain level to the improvement or the worsening of the safety and the care of the centre’s surroundings.

Strict measures are needed in order to safeguard HCWs, the general public and the surrounding environment from the deleterious effects that may stem from hospital activities. These activities include the use of ever more sophisticated technology, the more frequent use of extremely powerful drugs (the effects of which can have a profound and irreparable impact on the people who prepare or administer them), the too-often uncontrolled use of chemical products and the incidence of infectious diseases, some of which are incurable.

The risks of working in a hospital are many. Some are easy to identify, while others are very hard to detect; the measures to be taken should therefore always be rigorous.

Different groups of health professionals are particularly exposed to risks common to the health care industry in general, as well as to specific risks related to their profession and/or to the activities they perform in the course of their work.

The concept of prevention, therefore, must of necessity be incorporated to the health care field and encompass:

  • safety in the broadest sense, including psychosociology and ergonomics as part of the programmes to improve the quality of life in the workplace
  • hygiene, minimizing as much as possible any physical, chemical or biological factor that may affect the health of people in the work environment
  • environment, following policies to protect nature and people in the surrounding community and decreasing the impact on the environment.

 

We should be aware that the environment is directly and intimately related to the safety and hygiene in the workplace, because natural resources are consumed at work, and because these resources are later reincorporated into our surroundings. Our quality of life will be good or bad depending on whether we make correct use of these resources and use appropriate technologies.

Everyone’s involvement is necessary in order to contribute to further:

  • nature conservancy policies, designed to guarantee the survival of the natural heritage that surrounds us
  • environmental improvement policies as well as policies to control indoor and environmental pollution in order to integrate human activity with the environment
  • environmental research and training policies to improve working conditions as well as to reduce environmental impact
  • planning organizational policies designed to set goals and develop norms and methodology for workers’ health and the environment.

 

Goals

Such a programme should endeavour to:

  • change the culture and habits of health professionals in order to stimulate behaviour more conducive to safeguarding their health
  • set goals and develop internal safety, hygiene and environmental guidelines through adequate planning and organization
  • improve the methods of work to avoid a negative impact on health and the environment through environmental research and education
  • increase the involvement of all personnel and have them take responsibility for health in the workplace
  • create an adequate programme to establish and publicize the guidelines as well as to monitor their continued implementation
  • correctly classify and manage the waste generated
  • optimize costs, avoiding added expenditures that cannot be justified by the increased levels of safety and health or environmental quality.

 

Plan

A hospital should be conceived as a system that, through a number of processes, generates services. These services are the main goal of the activities performed in a hospital.

For the process to begin, certain commitments of energy, investments and technology are needed, which in turn will generate their own emissions and wastes. Their only aim is to provide service.

In addition to these prerequisites, consideration should be given to the conditions of the areas of the building where these activities will take place, since they have been designed a certain way and built with basic construction materials.

Control, planning and coordination are all necessary for an integrated safety, health and environmental project to succeed.

Methodology

Because of the complexity and the variety of risks in the health care field, multidisciplinary groups are required if solutions to each particular problem are to be found.

It is important for health care workers to be able to collaborate with safety studies, participating in the decisions that will be made to improve their working conditions. This way changes will be seen with a better attitude and the guidelines will be more readily accepted.

The safety, hygiene and environmental service should advise, stimulate and coordinate the programmes developed at the health centre. Responsibility for their implementation should fall upon whoever heads up the service where this programme will be followed. This is the only way to involve the entire organization.

In each particular case, the following will be selected:

  • the system involved
  • the parameters of the study
  • the time needed to carry it out.

 

The study will consist of:

  • an initial diagnosis
  • analysis of the risk
  • deciding on the course of action.

 

In order to implement the plan successfully it will always be necessary to:

  • educate and inform people of the risks
  • improve the management of human resources
  • improve the channels of communication.

 

This type of study may be a global one encompassing the centre as a whole (e.g., internal plan for the disposal of hospital wastes) or partial, encompassing only one concrete area (e.g., where cancer chemotherapeutic drugs are prepared).

The study of these factors will give an idea of the degree to which safety measures are disregarded, as much from the legal as from the scientific point of view. The concept of “legal” here encompasses advances in science and technology as they occur, which requires the constant revision and modification of established norms and guidelines.

It would be convenient indeed if the regulations and the laws by which safety, hygiene and the environment are regulated were the same in all countries, something that would make the installation, management and use of technology or products from other countries much easier.

Results

The following examples show some of the measures that can be taken while following the aforementioned methodology.

Laboratories

An advisory service can be developed involving professionals of the various laboratories and coordinated by the safety and hygiene service of the medical centre. The main goal would be to improve the safety and health of the occupants of all the labs, involving and giving responsibility to the entire professional staff of each and trying at the same time to make sure that these activities do not have a negative impact on public health and the environment.

The measures taken should include:

  • instituting the sharing of materials, products and equipment among the different laboratories, in order to optimize resources
  • reducing the stocks of chemical products in laboratories
  • creating a manual of basic norms of safety and hygiene
  • planning courses to educate all laboratory workers on these matters
  • training for emergencies.

 

Mercury

Thermometers, when broken, release mercury into the environment. A pilot project has been started with “unbreakable” thermometers to consider eventually substituting them for the glass thermometers. In some countries, such as the United States, electronic thermometers have replaced mercury thermometers to a very great extent.

Training the workers

The training and the commitment of the workers is the most important part of an integrated safety, health and environment programme. Given enough resources and time, the technicalities of almost any problem can be solved, but a complete solution will not be achieved without informing the workers of the risks and training them to avoid or control them. The training and education must be continuous, integrating health and safety techniques into all the other training programmes in the hospital.

Conclusions

The results that have been achieved so far in applying this work model allow us so far to be optimistic. They have shown that when people are informed about the whys and wherefores, their attitude toward change is very positive.

The response of health care personnel has been very good. They feel more motivated in their work and more valued when they have participated directly in the study and in the decision-making process. This participation, in turn, helps to educate the individual health care worker and to increase the degree of responsibility he or she is willing to accept.

The attainment of the goals of this project is a long-term objective, but the positive effects it generates more than compensate for the effort and the energy invested in it.

 

Back

Read 7981 times Last modified on Saturday, 13 August 2011 17:58
Published in The Hospital Environment
More in this category: « Buildings for Health Care Facilities Hospital Waste Management »
back to top

" DISCLAIMER: The ILO does not take responsibility for content presented on this web portal that is presented in any language other than English, which is the language used for the initial production and peer-review of original content. Certain statistics have not been updated since the production of the 4th edition of the Encyclopaedia (1998)."

Contents

Health Care Facilities and Services References

Abdo, R and H Chriske. 1990. HAV-Infektionsrisiken im Krankenhaus, Altenheim und Kindertagesstätten. In Arbeitsmedizin im Gesundheitsdienst, Band 5, edited by F Hofmann and U Stössel. Stuttgart: Gentner Verlag.

Acton, W. 1848. On the advantages of caouchoue and gutta-percha in protecting the skin against the contagion of animal poisons. Lancet 12:588.

Ahlin, J. 1992. Interdisciplinary case studies in offices in Sweden. In Corporate Space and Architecture. Vol. 2. Paris: Ministére de l’équipment et du logement.

Akinori, H and O Hiroshi. 1985. Analysis of fatigue and health conditions among hospital nurses. J Science of Labour 61:517-578.

Allmeers, H, B Kirchner, H Huber, Z Chen, JW Walter, and X Baur. 1996. The latency period between exposure and the symptoms in allergy to natural latex: Suggestions for prevention. Dtsh Med Wochenschr 121 (25/26):823-828.

Alter, MJ. 1986. Susceptibility to varicella zoster virus among adults at high risk for exposure. Infec Contr Hosp Epid 7:448-451.

—. 1993. The detection, transmission, and outcome of hepatitis C infection. Infect Agents Dis 2:155-166.

Alter, MJ, HS Margolis, K Krawczynski, FN Judson, A Mares, WJ Alexander, PY Hu, JK Miller, MA Gerber, and RE Sampliner. 1992. The natural history of community-acquired hepatitis C in the United States. New Engl J Med 327:1899-1905.

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). 1991. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices, 6th edition. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH.

—. 1994. TLVs: Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices for 1994-1995. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH.

American Hospital Association (AHA). 1992. Implementing Safer Needle Practice. Chicago, IL: AHA.

American Institute of Architects. 1984. Determining Hospital Space Requirements. Washington, DC: American Institute of Architects Press.

American Institute of Architects Committee on Architecture for Health. 1987. Guidelines for Construction and Equipment of Hospital and Medical Facilities. Washington, DC: American Institute of Acrchitects Press.

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). 1987. Health facilities. In ASHRAE Handbook: Heating, Ventilating and Air-conditioning Systems and Applications. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.

Anon. 1996. New drugs for HIV infection. Medical Letter of Drugs and Therapeutics 38:37.

Axelsson, G, R Rylander, and I Molin. 1989. Outcome of pregnancy in relation to irregular and inconvenient work schedules. Brit J Ind Med 46:393-398.

Beatty, J SK Ahern, and R Katz. 1977. Sleep deprivation and the vigilance of anesthesiologists during simulated surgery. In Vigilance, edited by RR Mackie. New York: Plenum Press.

Beck-Friis, B, P Strang, and PO Sjöden. 1991. Work stress and job satisfaction in hospital-based home care. Journal of Palliative Care 7(3):15-21.

Benenson, AS (ed.). 1990. Control of Communicable Disease in Man, 15th edition. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association.

Bertold, H, F Hofmann, M Michaelis, D Neumann-Haefelin, G Steinert, and J Wölfle. 1994. Hepatitis C—Risiko für Beschäftigte im Gesundheitsdienst? In Arbeitsmedizin im Gesundheitsdienst, Band 7, edited by F Hofmann, G Reschauer, and U Stössel. Stuttgart: Gentner Verlag.

Bertram, DA. 1988. Characteristics of shifts and second-year resident performance in an emergency department. NY State J Med 88:10-14.

Berufsgenossenschaft für Gesundheitsdienst und Wohlfahrtspflege (BGW). 1994. Geschäftsbericht.

Bissel, L and R Jones. 1975. Disabled doctors ignored by peers. Presented at the American Medical Association Conference on the Imparied Physician, 11 April, San Francisco, CA.

Bitker, TE. 1976. Reaching out to the depressed physician. JAMA 236(15):1713-1716.

Blanchard, M, MM Cantel, M Faivre, J Girot, JP Ramette, D Thely, and M Estryn-Béhar. 1992. Incidence des rythmes biologiques sur le travail de nuit. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital, edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. Toulouse: Edition Octares.

Blanpain, C and M Estryn-Béhar. 1990. Measures d’ambiance physique dans dix services hospitaliers. Performances 45:18-33.

Blaycock, B. 1995. Latex allergies: Overview, prevention and implications for nursing care. Ostomy Wound Manage 41(5):10-12,14-15.

Blazer, MJ, FJ Hickman, JJ Farmer, and DJ Brenner. 1980. Salmonella typhi: The laboratory as a reservoir of infection. Journal of Infectious Diseases 142:934-938.

Blow, RJ and MIV Jayson. 1988. Back pain. In Fitness for Work: The Medical Approach, edited by FC Edwards, RL McCallum, and PJ Taylor. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Boehm, G and E Bollinger. 1990. Significance of environmental factors on the tolerated enteral feeding volumes for patients in neonatal intensive care units. Kinderarzliche Praxis 58(6):275-279.

Bongers, P, RD Winter, MAJ Kompier, and VV Hildebrandt. 1992. Psychosocial Factors at Work and Musculoskeletal Diseases. Review of the literature. Leiden, Netherlands: TNO.

Bouhnik, C, M Estryn-Béhar, B Kapitaniak, M Rocher, and P Pereau. 1989. Le roulage dans les établissements de soins. Document pour le médecin du travail. INRS 39:243-252.

Boulard, R. 1993. Les indices de santé mentale du personnel infirmier: l’impact de la charge de travail, de l’autonomie et du soutien social. In La psychologie du travail à l’aube du XXI° siècle. Actes du 7° Congrès de psychologie du travail de langue française. Issy-les-Moulineaux: Editions EAP.

Breakwell, GM. 1989. Facing Physical Violence. London: British Psychological Society.

Bruce, DL and MJ Bach. 1976. Effects of Trace Concentrations of Anesthetic Gases on Behavioral Performance of Operating Room Personnel. DHEW (NIOSH) Publication No. 76-169. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH.

Bruce, DL, KA Eide, HW Linde, and JE Eckenhoff. 1968. Causes of death among anesthesiologists: A 20 years survey. Anesthesiology 29:565-569.

Bruce, DL, KA Eide, NJ Smith, F Seltzer, and MH Dykes. 1974. A prospective survey of anesthesiologists’ mortality, 1967-1974. Anesthesiology 41:71-74.

Burhill, D, DA Enarson, EA Allen, and S Grzybowski. 1985. Tuberculosis in female nurses in British Columbia. Can Med Assoc J 132:137.

Burke, FJ, MA Wilson, and JF McCord. 1995. Allergy to latex gloves in clinical practice: Case reports. Quintessence Int 26(12):859-863.

Buring, JE, CH Hennekens, SL Mayrent, B Rosner, ER Greenberg, and T Colton. 1985. Health experiences of operating room personnel. Anesthesiology 62: 325-330.

Burton, R. 1990. St. Mary’s Hospital, Isle of Wight: A suitable background for caring. Brit Med J 301:1423-1425.

Büssing, A. 1993. Stress and burnout in nursing: Studies in different work structures and work schedules. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Cabal, C, D Faucon, H Delbart, F Cabal, and G Malot. 1986. Construction d’une blanchisserie industrielle aux CHU de Saint-Etienne. Arch Mal Prof 48(5):393-394.

Callan, JR, RT Kelly, ML Quinn, JW Gwynne, RA Moore, FA Muckler, J Kasumovic, WM Saunders, RP Lepage, E Chin, I Schoenfeld, and DI Serig. 1995. Human Factors Evaluation of Remote Afterloading Brachytherapy. NUREG/CR-6125. Vol. 1. Washington, DC: Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Cammock, R. 1981. Primary Health Care Buildings: Briefing and Design Guide for Architects and Their Clients. London: Architectural Press.

Cardo, D, P Srivastava, C Ciesielski, R Marcus, P McKibben, D Culver, and D Bell. 1995. Case-control study of HIV seroconversion in health care workers after percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood (abstract). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 16 suppl:20.

Carillo, T, C Blanco, J Quiralte, R Castillo, M Cuevas, and F Rodriguez de Castro. 1995. Prevalence of latex allergy among greenhouse workers. J Allergy Clin Immunol 96(5/1):699-701.

Catananti, C and A Cambieri. 1990. Igiene e Tecnica Ospedaliera (Hospital Hygiene and Organization). Roma: II Pensiero Scientifico Editore.

Catananti, C, G Damiani, G Capelli, and G Manara. 1993. Building design and selection of materials and furnishings in the hospital: A review of international guidelines. In Indoor Air ’93, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate 2:641-646.

Catananti, C, G Capelli, G Damiani, M Volpe, and GC Vanini. 1994. Multiple criteria evaluation in planning selection of materials for health care facilities. Preliminary identification of criteria and variables. In Healthy Buildings ’94, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference 1:103-108.

Cats-Baril, WL and JW Frymoyer. 1991. The economics of spinal disorders. In The Adult Spine, edited by JW Frymoyer. New York: Raven Press.

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). 1982. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): Precautions for clinical laboratory staffs. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 31:577-580.

—. 1983. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): Precautions for health-care workers and allied professionals. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 32:450-451.

—. 1987a. Human immunodeficiency virus infection in health-care workers exposed to blood of infected patients. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 36:285-289.

—. 1987b. Recommendations for prevention of HIV transmission in health-care settings. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 36 suppl 2:3S-18S.

—. 1988a. Universal precautions for prevention of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, and other bloodborne pathogens in health-care settings. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 37:377-382,387-388.

—. 1988b. Guidelines for prevention of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis B virus to health-care and public-safety workers. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 37 suppl 6:1-37.

—. 1989. Guidelines for prevention of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis B virus to health-care and public-safety workers. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 38 suppl 6.

—. 1990. Public Health Service statement on management of occupational exposure to human immunodeficiency virus, including considerations regarding post-exposure use. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 39 (No. RR-1).

—. 1991a. Hepatitis B virus: A comprehensive strategy for eliminating transmission in the United States through universal childhood vaccination: Recommendations of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee (ACIP). Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 40 (No. RR-13).

—. 1991b. Recommendations for preventing transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis B virus to patients during exposure-prone invasive procedures. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 40 (No. RR-8).

—. 1993a. Recommended infection-control practices in dentistry. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 42 (No. RR-8):1-12.

—. 1993b. Biosafety in Microbial and Biomedical Laboratories, 3rd edition. DHHS (CDC) Publication No. 93-8395. Atlanta, GA: CDC.

—. 1994a. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. Vol. 5(4). Atlanta, GA: CDC.

—. 1994b. HIV/AIDS Prevention Newsletter. Vol. 5(4). Atlanta, GA: CDC.

—. 1994c. Human immunodeficiency virus in household settings—United States. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 43:347-356.

—. 1994d. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. Vol. 6(1). Atlanta, GA: CDC.

—. 1994e. Guidelines for preventing the transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in health-care facilities. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 43 (No. RR-13):5-50.

—. 1995. Case-control study of HIV seroconversion in health-care workers after percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood—France, United Kingdom, and United States. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 44:929-933.

—. 1996a. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. Vol 8(2). Atlanta, GA: CDC.

—. 1996b. Update: Provisional Public Health Service recommendations for chemoprophylaxis after occupational exposure to HIV. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 45:468-472.

Charney, W (ed.). 1994. Essentials of Modern Hospital Safety. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.

Chou, T, D Weil, and P Arnmow. 1986. Prevalence of measles antibodies in hospital personnel. Infec Contr Hosp Epid 7:309-311.

Chriske, H and A Rossa. 1991. Hepatitis-C-Infektionsgefährdung des medizinischen Personals. In Arbeitsmedizin im Gesundheitsdienst, Band 5, edited by F Hofmann and U Stössel. Stuttgart: Gentner Verlag.

Clark, DC, E Salazar-Gruesco, P Grabler, J Fawcett. 1984. Predictors of depression during the first 6 months of internship. Am J Psychiatry 141:1095-1098.

Clemens, R, F Hofmann, H Berthold, and G Steinert. 1992. Prävalenz von Hepatitis, A, B und C bei Bewohern einer Einrichtung für geistig Behinderte. Sozialpädiatrie 14:357-364.

Cohen, EN. 1980. Anasthetic Exposure in the Workplace. Littleton, MA: PSG Publishing Co.

Cohen, EN, JW Bellville, and BW Brown, Jr. 1971. Anesthesia, pregnancy and miscarriage: A study of operating room nurses and anesthetists. Anesthesiology 35:343-347.

—. 1974. Occupational disease among operating room personnel: A national study. Anesthesiology 41:321-340.

—. 1975. A survey of anethestic health hazards among dentists. J Am Dent Assoc 90:1291-1296.

Commission of the European Communities. 1990. Recommendation of the Commission February 21, 1990, about Protection of People against Exposure to Radon in Indoor Environments. 90/143/Euratom (Italian Translation).

Cooper, JB. 1984. Toward prevention of anesthesic mishaps. International Anesthesiology Clinics 22:167-183.

Cooper, JB, RS Newbower, and RJ Kitz. 1984. An analysis of major errors and equipment failures in anesthesia management: Considerations for prevention and detection. Anesthesiology 60(1):34-42.

Costa, G, R Trinco, and G Schallenberg. 1992. Problems of thermal comfort in an operating room equipped with laminar air flow system In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar M, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Cristofari, M-F, M Estryn-Béhar, M Kaminski, and E Peigné. 1989. Le travail des femmes à l’hôpital. Informations Hospitalières 22/23:48-62.

Council of the European Communities. 1988. Directive December 21, 1988, to Draw Near the Laws of Member Countries about Building Products. 89/106/EEC (Italian translation).

de Chambost, M. 1994. Alarmes sonnantes, soignantes trébuchantes. Objectif soins 26:63-68.

de Keyser, V and AS Nyssen. 1993. Les erreurs humaines en anesthésies. Le Travail humain 56(2/3):243-266.

Decree of the President of Ministers Council. 1986. Directive to the Regions about Private Health Care Facilities Requirements. 27 June.

Dehlin, O, S Berg, GBS Andersson, and G Grimby. 1981. Effect of physical training and ergonomic counselling on the psychosocial perception of work and on the subjective assesment of low-back insuffuciency. Scand J Rehab 13:1-9.

Delaporte, MF, M Estryn-Béhar, G Brucker, E Peigne, and A Pelletier. 1990. Pathologie dermatologique et exercice professionnel en milieu hospitalier. Arch Mal Prof 51(2):83-88.

Denisco, RA, JN Drummond, and JS Gravenstein. 1987. The effect of fatigue on the performance of a simulated anesthetic monitoring task. J Clin Monit 3:22-24.

Devienne, A, D Léger, M Paillard, A Dômont. 1995. Troubles du sommeil et de la vigilance chez des généralistes de garde en région parisienne. Arch Mal Prof 56(5):407-409.

Donovan, R, PA Kurzman, and C Rotman. 1993. Improving the lives of home care workers: A partnership of social work and labor. Soc Work 38(5):579-585..

Edling, C. 1980. Anesthetic gases as an occupational hazard. A review. Scand J Work Environ Health 6:85-93.

Ehrengut, W and T Klett. 1981. Rötelnimmunstatus von Schwesternschülerinnen in Hamberger Krankenhäusern im Jahre 1979. Monatsschrift Kinderheilkdunde 129:464-466.

Elias, J, D Wylie, A Yassi, and N Tran. 1993. Eliminating worker exposure to ethylene oxide from hospital sterilizers: An evaluation of cost and effectiveness of an isolation system. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 8(8):687-692.

Engels, J, TH Senden, and K Hertog. 1993. Working postures of nurses in nursing homes. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Englade J, E Badet and G Becque. 1994. Vigilance et qualité de sommeil des soignants de nuit. Revue de l’infirmière 17:37-48.

Ernst, E and V Fialka. 1994. Idiopathic low back pain: Present impact, future directions. European Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 4:69-72.

Escribà Agüir, V. 1992. Nurses’ attitudes towards shiftwork and quality of life, Scand J Soc Med 20(2):115-118.

Escribà Agüir V, S Pérez, F Bolumar, and F Lert. 1992. Retentissement des horaires de travail sur le sommeil des infirmiers. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Estryn-Béhar, M. 1990. Les groupes de parole: Une stratégie d’amélioration des relations avec les malades. Le concours médical 112(8):713-717.

—. 1991. Guide des risques professionnels du personnel des services de soins. Paris: Editions Lamarre.

Estryn-Béhar, M and N Bonnet. 1992. Le travail de nuit à l’hôpital. Quelques constats à mieux prendre en compte. Arch Mal Prof 54(8):709-719.

Estryn-Béhar, M and F Fonchain. 1986. Les troubles du sommeil du personnel hospitalier effectuant un travail de nuit en continu. Arch Mal Prof 47(3):167-172;47(4):241.

Estryn-Béhar, M and JP Fouillot. 1990a. Etude de la charge physique du personnel soignant, Documents pour le médecin du travail. INRS: 27-33.

—. 1990b. Etude de la charge mentale et approche de la charge psychique du personnel soignant. Analyse du travail des infirmières et aides-soignantes dans 10 services de soins. Documents pour le médecin du travail INRS 42:131-144.

Estryn-Béhar, M and C Hakim-Serfaty. 1990. Organisation de l’espace hospitalier. Techn hosp 542:55-63.

Estryn-Béhar, M and G Milanini. 1992. Concevoir les espaces de travail en services de soins. Technique Hospitalière 557:23-27.

Estryn-Béhar, M and H Poinsignon. 1989. Travailler à l’hopital. Paris: Berger Levrault.

Estryn-Béhar, M, C Gadbois, and E Vaichere. 1978. Effets du travail de nuit en équipes fixes sur une population féminine. Résultats d’une enquête dans le secteur hospitalier. Arch Mal Prof 39(9):531-535.

Estryn-Béhar, M, C Gadbois, E Peigné, A Masson, and V Le Gall. 1989b. Impact of nightshifts on male and female hospital staff, in Shiftwork: Health and Performance, edited by G Costa, G Cesana, K Kogi, and A Wedderburn. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Night and Shift Work. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.

Estryn-Béhar, M, M Kaminski, and E Peigné. 1990. Strenuous working conditions and musculoskeletal disorders among female hospital workers. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 62:47-57.

Estryn-Béhar, M, M Kaminski, M Franc, S Fermand, and F Gerstle F. 1978. Grossesse er conditions de travail en milieu hospitalier. Revue franç gynec 73(10) 625-631.

Estryn-Béhar, M, M Kaminski, E Peigné, N Bonnet, E Vaichère, C Gozlan, S Azoulay, and M Giorgi. 1990. Stress at work and mental health status. Br J Ind Med 47:20-28.

Estryn-Béhar, M, B Kapitaniak, MC Paoli, E Peigné, and A Masson. 1992. Aptitude for physical exercise in a population of female hospital workers. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 64:131-139.

Estryn Béhar, M, G Milanini, T Bitot, M Baudet, and MC Rostaing. 1994. La sectorisation des soins: Une organisation, un espace. Gestion hospitalière 338:552-569.

Estryn-Béhar, M, G Milanini, MM Cantel, P Poirier, P Abriou, and the ICU’s study group. 1995a. Interest of participative ergonomic methodology to improve an intensive care unit. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, 2nd edition, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

—. 1995b. Participative ergonomic methodology for the new fitting out of a cardiologic intensive care unit. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, 2nd edition, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Estryn-Béhar, M, E Peigné, A Masson, C Girier-Desportes, JJ Guay, D Saurel, JC Pichenot, and J Cavaré. 1989a. Les femmes travaillant à l’hôpital aux différents horaires, qui sont-elles? Que décrivent-elles comme conditions de travail? Que souhaitent-elles? Arch Mal Prof 50(6):622-628.

Falk, SA and NF Woods. 1973. Hospital noise-levels and potential health hazards, New England J Med 289:774-781.

Fanger, PO. 1973. Assessment of man’s thermal comfort in practice. Br J Ind Med 30:313-324.

—. 1992. Sensory characterization of air quality and pollution sources. In Chemical, Microbiological, Health and Comfort Aspects of Indoor Air Quality—State of the Art in SBS, edited by H Knoppel and P Wolkoff. Dordrecht, NL: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Favrot-Laurens. 1992. Advanced technologies and work organization of hospital teams. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

—. 1992. Sensory characterization of air quality and pollution sources. In Chemical, Microbiological, Health and Comfort Aspects of Indoor Air Quality—State of the Art in Sick Building Syndrome, edited by H Koppel and P Wolkoff. Brussels and Luxembourg: EEC.

Ferstandig, LL. 1978. Trace concentrations of anesthetic gases: A critical review of their disease potential. Anesth Analg 57:328-345.

Finley, GA and AJ Cohen. 1991. Percieved urgency and the anaesthetist: Responses to common operating room monitor alarms. Can J Anaesth 38(8):958-964

Ford, CV and DK Wentz. 1984. The internship year: A study of sleep, mood states, and psychophysiologic parameters. South Med J 77:1435-1442.

Friedman, RC, DS Kornfeld, and TJ Bigger. 1971. Psychological problems associated with sleep deprivation in interns. Journal of Medical Education 48:436-441.

Friele, RD and JJ Knibbe. 1993. Monitoring the barriers with the use of patient lifts in home care as perceived by nursing personnel. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. LandsbergLech: Ecomed Verlag.

Gadbois, CH. 1981. Aides-soignantes et infirmières de nuit. In Conditions de travail et vie quotidienne. Montrougs: Agence Nationale pour l’Amélioration des Conditions de Travail.

Gadbois, C, P Bourgeois, MM Goeh-Akue-Gad, J Guillaume, and MA Urbain. 1992. Contraintes temporelles et structure de l’espace dans le processus de travail des équipes de soins. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Games, WP, and W Tatton-Braen. 1987. Hospitals Design and Development. London: Architectural Press.

Gardner, ER and RC Hall. 1981. The professional stress syndrome. Psychosomatics 22:672-680.

Gaube, J, H Feucht, R Laufs, D Polywka, E Fingscheidt, and HE Müller. 1993. Hepatitis A, B und C als desmoterische Infecktionen. Gessundheitwesen und Desinfextion 55:246-249.

Gerberding, JL. N.d. Open trial of Zidovudine Postexposure-chemoprophylaxis in Health Care Workers with Occupational Exposures to Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Skript SFGH.

—. 1995. Management of occupational exposures to blood-borne viruses. New Engl J Med 332:444-451.

Ginesta, J. 1989. Gases anestésicos. In Riesgos del Trabajo del Personal Sanitario, edited by JJ Gestal. Madrid: Editorial Interamericana McGraw-Hill.

Gold, DR, S Rogacz, N Bock, TD Tosteson, TM Baum, FE Speizer, and CA Czeiler. 1992. Rotating shift work, sleep and accidents related to sleepiness in hospital nurses. Am J Public Health 82(7):1011-1014.

Goldman, LI, MT McDonough, and GP Rosemond. 1972. Stresses affecting surgical performance and learning: Correlation of heart rate, electrocardiogram, and operation simultaneously recorded on videotapes. J Surg Res 12:83-86.

Graham, C, C Hawkins, and W Blau. 1983. Innovative social work practice in health care: Stress management. In Social Work in a Turbulent World, edited by M Dinerman. Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.

Green, A. 1992. How nurses can ensure the sounds patients hear have a positive rather than negative effect upon recovery and quality of life. Intensive & Critical Care Nursing Journal 8(4):245-248.

Griffin, WV. 1995. Social worker and agency safety. In Encyclopaedia of Social Work, 19th edition. Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.

Grob, PJ. 1987. Cluster of hepatitis B transmission by a physician. Lancet 339:1218-1220.

Guardino, X and MG Rosell. 1985. Exposicion laboral a gases anestésicos. In Notas Técnicas de Prevención. No. 141. Barcelona: INSHT.

—. 1992. Exposure at work to anesthetic gases. A controlled risk? Janus 12:8-10.

—. 1995. Exposure monitoring to anesthetic gases. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagburg, F Hoffmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Solna: National Institute of Occupational Health.

Hagberg, M, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander (eds.). 1993. Occupational Health for Health Care Workers. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Hagberg, M, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander (eds.). 1995. Occupational Health for Health Care Workers. Singapore: International Commission on Occupational Health.

Haigh, R. 1992. The application of ergonomics to the design of workplace in health care buildings in the U.K. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Halm, MA and MA Alpen, 1993. The impact of technology on patient and families. Nursing Clinics of North America 28(2):443-457.

Harber, P, L Pena, and P Hsu. 1994. Personal history, training, and worksite as predictors of back pain of nurses. Am J Ind Med 25:519-526.

Hasselhorn, HM. 1994. Antiretrovirale prophylaxe nach kontakt mit HIV-jontaminierten. In Flüssigkeiten in Infektiologie, edited by F Hofmann. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Hasselhorn, HM and E Seidler.1993. Terminal care in Sweden—New aspects of the professional care of dying. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel U, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Heptonstall, J, K Porter, and N Gill. 1993. Occupational Transmission of HIV: Summary of Published Reports. London: Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre AIDS Centre.

Hesse, A, Lacher A, HU Koch, J Kublosch, V Ghane, and KF Peters. 1996. Update on the latex allergy topic. Hauzarzt 47(11):817-824.

Ho, DD, T Moudgil, and M Alam. 1989. Quantitation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in the blood of infected persons. New Engl J Med 321:1621-1625.

Hodge, B and JF Thompson. 1990. Noise pollution in the operating theatre. Lancet 335:891-894.

Hofmann, F and H Berthold. 1989. Zur Hepatitis-B-Gefährdung des Krankenhauspersonals-Möglichkeiten der prae-und postexpositionellen Prophylaxe. Medizinische Welt 40:1294-1301.

Hofmann, F and U Stössel. 1995. Environmental health in the health care professions: Biological, physical, psychic, and social health hazards. Reviews on Environmental Health 11:41-55.

Hofmann, F, H Berthold, and G Wehrle. 1992. Immunity to hepatitis A in hospital personnel. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 11(12):1195.

Hofmann, F, U Stössel, and J Klima. 1994. Low back pain in nurses (I). European Journal of Physical and Medical Rehabilitation 4:94-99.

Hofmann, F, B Sydow, and M Michaelis. 1994a. Mumps—berufliche Gefährdung und Aspekte der epidemiologischen Entwicklung. Gessundheitwesen und Desinfextion 56:453-455.

—. 1994b. Zur epidemiologischen Bedeutung der Varizellen. Gessundheitwesen und Desinfextion 56:599-601.

Hofmann, F, G Wehrle, K Berthold, and D Köster. 1992. Hepatitis A as an occupational hazard. Vaccine 10 suppl 1:82-84.

Hofmann, F, U Stössel, M Michaelis, and A Siegel. 1993. Tuberculosis—Occupational risk for health care workers? In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Hofmann, F, M Michaelis, A Siegel, and U Stössel. 1994. Wirbelsäulenerkrankungen im Pflegeberuf. Medizinische Grundlagen und Prävention. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Hofmann, F, M Michaelis, M Nübling, and FW Tiller. 1995. European Hepatitis—A Study. Publikation in Vorereitung.

Hofmann, H and C Kunz. 1990. Low risk of health care workers for infection with hepatitis-C virus. Infection 18:286-288.

Holbrook, TL, K Grazier, JL Kelsey, and RN Stauffer. 1984. The Frequency of Occurrence, Impact, and Cost of Selected Musculoskeletal Conditions in the United States. Park Ridge, Il: American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons.

Hollinger, FB. 1990. Hepatitis B virus. In Virology, edited by BN Fiedles and DM Knipe. New York: Raven Press.

Hopps, J and P Collins. 1995. Social work profession overview. In Encyclopedia of Social Work, 19th edition. Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.

Hubacova, L, I Borsky, and F Strelka. 1992. Work physiology problems of nurses working in inpatients departments. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Hunt, LW, AF Fransway, CE Reed, LK Miller, RT Jones, MC Swanson, and JW Yunginger. 1995. An epidemic of occupational allergy to latex involving health care workers. J Occup Environ Med 37(10):1204-1209.

Jacobson, SF and HK MacGrath. 1983. Nurses under Stress. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Jacques, CHM, MS Lynch and JS Samkoff. 1990. The effects of sleep loss on cognitive performance of resident physicians. J Fam Pract 30:223-229.

Jagger, J, EH Hunt, J Brand-Elnagger, and RD Pearson. 1988. Rates of needle-stick injury caused by various devices in a university hospital. New Engl J Med 319:284-288.

Johnson, JA, RM Buchan, and J S Reif. 1987. Effect of waste anesthetic gas and vapor exposure on reproductive outcome in veterinary personnel. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 48(1):62-66.

Jonasson, G, JO Holm, and J Leegard. Rubber allergy: An increasing health problem? Tuidsskr Nor Laegeforen 113(11):1366-1367.

Kandolin, I. 1993. Burnout of female and male nurses in shiftwork. Ergonomics 36(1/3):141-147.

Kaplan, RM and RA Deyo. 1988. Back pain in health care workers. In Back Pain in Workers, edited by RA Deyo. Philadelphia, PA: Hanley & Belfus.

Katz, R. 1983. Causes of death among nurses. Occup Med 45:760-762.

Kempe, P, M Sauter and I Lindner. 1992. Special characteristics of nurses for the aged who made use of a training program aimed to reduce burn-out symptoms and first results on treatment outcome. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Kerr, JH. 1985. Warning devices. Br J Anaesth 57:696-708.

Kestin, IG, RB Miller, and CJ Lockhart. 1988. Auditory alarms during anesthesia monitoring. Anesthesiology 69(1):106-109.

Kinloch-de-los, S, BJ Hirschel, B Hoen, DA Cooper, B Tindall, A Carr, H Sauret, N Clumeck, A Lazzarin, and E Mathiesen. 1995. A controlled trial of Zidovudine in primary human immunodeficiency virus infection. New Engl J Med 333:408-413.

Kivimäki, M and K Lindström. 1995. The crucial role of the head nurse in a hospital ward. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Klaber Moffet, JA, SM Chase, I Portek, and JR Ennis. 1986. A controlled study to evaluate the efectiveness of the back pain school in the relief of chronic low back pain. Spine 11:120-122.

Kleczkowski, BM, C Montoya-Aguilar, and NO Nilsson. 1985. Approaches to Planning and Design of Health Care Facilities in Developing Areas. Vol. 5. Geneva: WHO.

Klein, BR and AJ Platt. 1989. Health Care Facility Planning and Construction. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Kelin, R, K Freemann, P Taylor, C Stevens. 1991. Occupational risk for hepatits C virus infection among New York City dentists. Lancet 338:1539-1542.

Kraus, H. 1970. Clinical Treatment of Back and Neck Pain. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Kujala, VM and KE Reilula. 1995. Glove-induced dermal and respiratory symptoms among health care workers in one Finnish hospital. Am J Ind Med 28(1):89-98.

Kurumatani, N, S Koda, S Nakagiri, K Sakai, Y Saito, H Aoyama, M Dejima, and T Moriyama. 1994. The effects of frequently rotating shiftwork on sleep and the family life of hospital nurses. Ergonomics 37:995-1007.

Lagerlöf, E and E Broberg. 1989. Occupational injuries and diseases. In Occupational Hazards in the Health Professions, edited by DK Brune and C Edling. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Lahaye, D, P Jacques, G Moens, and B Viaene. 1993. The registration of medical data obtained by preventive medical examinations on health care workers. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, F, U Stössel and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Lampher, BP, CC Linneman, CG Cannon, MM DeRonde, L Pendy, and LM Kerley. 1994. Hepatitis C virus infection in health care workers: Risk of exposure and infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 15:745-750.

Landau, C, S Hall, SA Wartman, and MB Macko. 1986. Stress in social and family relationships during medical residency. Journal of Medical Education 61:654-660.

Landau, K. 1992. Psycho-physical strain and the burn-out phenomen amongst health care professionals. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Landewe, MBM and HT Schröer. 1993. Development of a new, integrated patient transfer training program—Primary prevention of low back pain. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, editeb by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Lange, M. 1931. Die Muskelhärten (Myogelosen). Munich: JF Lehman Verlag.

Lange, W and KN Masihi. 1986. Durchseuchung mit Hepatitis-A- und B-Virus bei medizinischem Personal. Bundesgesundheitsol 29;183-87.

Lee, KA. 1992. Self-reported sleep disturbances in employed women. Sleep15(6):493-498.

Lempereur, JJ. 1992. Prévention des dorso-lombalgies. Influence du vêtement de travail sur le comportement gestuel. Spécifications ergonomiques. Cah Kinésither 156,:4.

Leppanen, RA and MA Olkinuora. 1987. Psychological stress experienced by health care personnel. Scand J Work Environ Health 13:1-8.

Lert, F, MJ Marne, and A Gueguen. 1993. Evolution des conditions de travail des infirmières des hôpitaux publics de 1980 à 1990. Revue de l’Epidémiologie et de santé publique 41:16-29.

Leslie, PJ, JA Williams, C McKenna, G Smith and RC Heading. 1990. Hours, volume, and type of work of preregistration house officers. Brit Med J 300:1038-1041.

Lettau, LA, HJ Alfred, RH Glew, HA Fields, MJ Alter, R Meyer, SC Hadler, and JE Maynard. 1986. Nosocomial transmission of delta hepatitis. Ann Intern Med 104:631-635.

Levin, H. 1992. Healthy buildings—Where do we stand, where do we go? In Chemical, Microbiological, Health and Comfort Aspects of Indoor Air Quality: State of the Art in Sick Building Syndrome, edited by H Knoppel and P Wolkoff. Brussels and Luxembourg: EEC.

Lewittes, LR and VW Marshall. 1989. Fatigue and concerns about quality of care among Ontario interns and residents. Can Med Assoc J 140:21-24.

Lewy, R. 1990. Employees at Risk: Protection and Health of Health Care Workers. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Lindström, A and M Zachrisson. 1973. Ryggbesvär och arbetssoförmaga Ryyggskolan. Ett Försok till mer rationeli fysikalist terapi. Socialmet T 7:419-422.

Lippert. 1971. Travel in nursing units. Human Factors 13(3):269-282.

Ljungberg, AS, A Kilbom, and MH Goran. 1989. Occupational lifting by nursing aides and warehouse workers. Ergonomics 32:59-78.

Llewelyn-Davies, R and J Wecks. 1979. In-patient areas. In Approaches to Planning and Design of Health Care Facilities in Developing Areas, edited by BM Kleczkowski and R Piboleau. Geneva: WHO.

Loeb, RG, BR Jones, KH Behrman, and RJ Leonard. 1990. Anesthetists cannot identify audible alarms. Anesthesiology 73(3A):538.

Lotas, MJ. 1992. Effects of light and sound in the neonatal intensive care unit environment on the low-birth-weight infant. NAACOGS Clinical Issues in Perinatal & Womens Health Nursing 3(1):34-44.

Lurie, HE, B Rank, C Parenti, T Wooley, and W Snoke. 1989. How do house officers spend their nights? A time study of internal medicine house staff on call. New Engl J Med 320:1673-1677.

Luttman, A, M Jäger, J Sökeland, and W Laurig. 1996. Electromyographical study on surgeons in urology II. Determination of muscular fatigue. Ergonomics 39(2):298-313.

Makino, S. 1995. Health problems in health care workers in Japan. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsbeg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Malchaire, JB. 1992. Analysis of the work load of nurses. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Manuaba, A. 1992. Social-cultural approach is a must in designing hospital in developing countries, Indonesia as a case study. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Maruna, H. 1990. Zur Hepatitis-B-Durchseuchung in den Berufen des Gesundheits und Fürsorgewesens der Republik Österreichs, Arbeitsmed. Präventivmed. Sozialmed 25:71-75.

Matsuda, A. 1992. Ergonomics approach to nursing care in Japan. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

McCall, T. 1988. The impact of long working hours on resident physicians. New Engl J Med 318(12):775-778.

McCloy, E. 1994. Hepatitis and the EEC Directive. Presented at the 2nd International Conference on Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, Stockholm.

McCormick, RD, MG Meuch, IG Irunk, and DG Maki. 1991. Epidemiology for hospital sharp injuries: A 14-year prospective study in the pre-AIDS and AIDS era. Am J Med 3B:3015-3075.

McCue, JD. 1982. The effects of stresses on physicians and their medical practice. New Engl J Med 306:458-463.

McIntyre, JWR. 1985. Ergonomics: Anaesthetists’ use of auditory alarms in the operating room. Int J Clin Monit Comput 2:47-55

McKinney, PW, MM Horowitz, and RJ Baxtiola. 1989. Susceptibility of hospital-based health care personnel to varicella zoster virus infection. Am J Infect Control 18:26-30.

Melleby, A. 1988. Exercise program for a healthy back. In Diagnosis and Treatment of Muscle Pain. Chicago, IL: Quintessence Books.

Meyer,TJ, SE Eveloff, MS Bauer, WA Schwartz, NS Hill, and PR Millman. 1994. Adverse environmental conditions in the respiratory and medical intensive care unit settings. Chest 105:1211-1216.

Miller, E, J Vurdien, and P Farrington. 1993. Shift age in chickenpox. Lancet 1:341.

Miller, JM. 1982. William Stewart Halsted and the use of the surgical rubber glove. Surgery 92:541-543.

Mitsui, T, K Iwano, K Maskuko, C Yanazaki, H Okamoto, F Tsuda, T Tanaka, and S Mishiros. 1992. Hepatitis C virus infection in medical personnel after needlestick accidents. Hepatology 16:1109-1114.

Modig, B. 1992. Hospital ergonomics in a biopsychosocial perspective. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Momtahan, K, R Hétu, and B Tansley. 1993. Audibility and identification of auditory alarms in the operating room and intensive care unit. Ergonomics 36(10):1159-1176.

Momtahan, KL and BW Tansley. 1989. An ergonomic analysis of the auditory alarm signals in the operating room and recovery room. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Acoustical Association, 18 October, Halifax, NS.

Montoliu, MA, V Gonzalez, B Rodriguez, JF Quintana, and L Palenciano.1992. Conditions de travail dans la blanchisserie centrale des grands hôpitaux de Madrid. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Moore, RM, YM Davis, and RG Kaczmarek. 1993. An overview of occupational hazards among veterinarians, with particular reference to pregnant women. Am J Ind Hyg Assoc 54(3):113-120.

Morel, O. 1994. Les agents des services hospitaliers. Vécu et santé au travail. Arch mal prof 54(7):499-508.

Nachemson, AL and GBJ Anderson. 1982. Classification of low back pain. Scand J Work Environ Health 8:134-136.

National Health Service (NHS). 1991a. Design Guide. The Design of Community Hospitals. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.

—. 1991b. Health Building Note 46: General Medical Practice Premises for the Provision of Primary Health Care Service. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 1975. Development and Evaluation of Methods for the Elimination of Waste Anesthetic Gases and Vapors in Hospitals. DHEW (NIOSH) Publication No. 75-137. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH.

—. 1997a. Control of Occupational Exposure to N2O in the Dentral Operatory. DHEW (NIOSH) Publication No. 77-171. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH.

—. 1977b. Criteria for a Recommended Standard: Occupational Exposure to Waste Anesthetic Gases and Vapors. DHEW (NIOSH) Publication No. 77-1409. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH.

—. 1988. Guidelines for Protecting the Safety and Health of Health Care Workers. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 88-119. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH.

—. 1994. NIOSH Alert: Request for Assistance in Controlling Exposures to Nitrous Oxide during Anesthetic Administration. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 94-100. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH.

Niu, MT, DS Stein, and SM Schnittmann. 1993. Primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection: Review of pathogenesis and early treatment interventions in human and animal retrovirus infections. J Infect Dis 168:1490-1501.

Noweir, MH and MS al-Jiffry. 1991. Study of noise pollution in Jeddah hospitals. Journal of the Egyptian Public Health Association 66 (3/4):291-303.

Nyman, I and A Knutsson. 1995. Psychosocial wellbeing and sleep quality in hospital night and day workers. In Occuaptional Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Objectif Prévention No spécial. 1994. Le lève personne sur rail au plafond: Outil de travail indispensable. Objectif Prévention 17(2):13-39.

O’Carroll, TM. 1986. Survey of alarms in an intensive therapy unit. Anaesthesia 41:742-744.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). 1991. Occupational Exposure to Bloodborne Pathogens: Final Rule. 29 CFR Part 1910.1030. Washington, DC: OSHA.

Oëler, JM. 1993. Developmental care of low birth weight infants. Nursing Clinics of North America 28(2):289-301.

Öhling, P and B Estlund. 1995. Working technique for health care workers. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander G. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Ollagnier, E and Lamarche MJ. 1993. Une intervention ergonomique dans un hôpital suisse: Impact sur la santé de l’organisation du personnel et des patients. In Ergonomie et santé, edited by D Ramaciotti and A Bousquet. Actes du XXVIIIe congrès de la SELF. Geneva: SELF.

Ott, C, M Estryn-Béhar, C Blanpain, A Astier, and G Hazebroucq. 1991. Conditionnement du médicament et erreurs de médication. J Pharm Clin 10:61-66.

Patkin, M. 1992. Hospital architecture: An ergonomic debacle. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Payer, L. 1988. Medicine and Culture: The Variety of Treatment in the United States, England, West Germany and France. New York: H. Holt.

Payne, R and J Firth-Cozens (eds.). 1987. Stress in Health Professions. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

—. 1995. Determination of dinitrogen oxide (N2O) in urine as control to anesthetic exposure. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hoffmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Solna: National Institute of Occupational Health.

Pelikan, JM. 1993. Improving occupational health for health care workers within the health promoting hospital: Experiences from the Vienna WHO model project “health and hospital”. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Pérez, L, R De Andrés, K. Fitch, and R Najera. 1994. Seroconversiones a VIH tras Sanitarios en Europa. Presented at the 2nd Reunión Nacional sobre el SIDA Cáceres.

Philip, RN, KRT Reinhard, and DB Lackman. 1959. Observations on a mumps epidemic in a “virgin” population. Am J Hyg 69:91-111.

Pottier, M. 1992. Ergonomie à l’hôpital-hospital ergonomics. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Poulton, EC, GM Hunt, A Carpenter, and RS Edwards. 1978. The performance of junior hospital doctors following reduced sleep and long hours of work. Ergonomics 21:279-295.

Pöyhönen, T and M Jokinen. 1980. Stress and Other Occupational Health Problems Affecting Hospital Nurses. Vantaa, Finland: Tutkimuksia.

Raffray, M. 1994. Etude de la charge physique des AS par mesure de la fréquence cardiaque. Objectif soins 26:55-58.

Ramaciotti, D, S Blaire, A Bousquet, E Conne, V Gonik, E Ollagnier, C Zummermann, and L Zoganas. 1990. Processus de régulation des contraintes économiques physiologiques et sociales pour différents groupes de travail en horaires irréguliers et de nuit. Le travail humain 53(3):193-212.

Reuben, DB. 1985. Depressive symptoms in medical house officers: Effects of level of training and work rotation. Arch Intern Med 145:286-288.

Reznick, RK and JR Folse. 1987. Effect of sleep deprivation on the performance of surgical residents. Am J Surg 154:520-52.

Rhoads, JM.1977. Overwork. JAMA 237:2615-2618.

Rodary, C and A Gauvain-Piquard 1993. Stress et épuisement professionnel. Objectif soins 16:26-34.

Roquelaure, Y, A Pottier, and M Pottier. 1992. Approche ergonomique comparative de deux enregistreurs electroencéphalographiques. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Rosell, MG, P Luna, and X Guardino. 1989. Evaluacion y Control de Contaminantes QuPmicos en Hospitales. Technical Document No. 57. Barcelona: INSHT.

Rubin, R, P Orris, SL Lau, DO Hryhorczuk, S Furner, and R Letz. 1991. Neurobehavioral effects of the on-call experience in housestaff physicians. J Occup Med 33:13-18.

Saint-Arnaud, L, S Gingras, R Boulard., M Vezina and H Lee-Gosselin. 1992. Les symptômes psychologiques en milieu hospitalier. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Samkoff, JS, CHM Jacques. 1991. A review of studies concerning effects of sleep deprivation and fatigue on residents’ performance. Acad Med 66:687-693.

Sartori, M, G La Terra, M Aglietta, A Manzin, C Navino, and G Verzetti. 1993. Transmission of hepatitis C via blood splash into conjunctiva. Scand J Infect Dis 25:270-271.

Saurel, D. 1993. CHSCT Central, Enquete “Rachialgies” Résultats. Paris: Assistance Publique-Höpitaux de Paris, Direction du personnel et des relations sociales.

Saurel-Cubizolles, MJ, M Hay, and M Estryn-Béhar. 1994. Work in operating rooms and pregnancy outcome among nurses. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 66:235-241.

Saurel-Cubizolles, MJ, MKaminski, J Llhado-Arkhipoff, C Du Mazaubrum, M Estryn-Behar, C Berthier, M Mouchet, and C Kelfa. 1985. Pregnancy and its outcome among hospital personnel according to occupation and working condition. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 39:129-134.

Schröer, CAP, L De Witte, and H Philipsen. 1993. Effects of shift work on quality of sleep, health complaints and medical consumption of female nurses. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Senevirane, SR, De A and DN Fernando. 1994. Influence of work on pregnancy outcome. Int J Gynecol Obstet VOL: 35-40.

Shapiro, ET, H Pinsker and JH Shale. 1975. The mentally ill physician as practitioner. JAMA 232(7):725-727.

Shapiro, RA and T Berland. 1972. Noise in the operating room. New Engl J Med 287(24):1236-1238.

Shindo, E. 1992. The present condition of nursing ergonomics in Japan. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Siegel, A, M Michaelis, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and W Peinecke. 1993. Use and acceptance of lifting aids in hospitals and geriatric homes. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Smith, MJ, MJ Colligan, IJ Frocki, and DL Tasto. 1979. Occupational injury rates among nurses as a function of shift schedule. Journal of Safety Research 11(4):181-187.

Smith-Coggins, R, MR Rosekind, S Hurd, and KR Buccino. 1994. Relationship of day versus night sleep to physician performance and mood. Ann Emerg Med 24:928-934.

Snook, SH. 1988a. Approaches to the control of back pain in industry. In Back Pain in Workers, edited by RA Deyo. Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus.

—. 1988b. The costs of back pain in industry. In Back Pain in Workers, edited by RA Deyo. Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus.

South, MA, JL Sever, and L Teratogen. 1985. Update: The congenital rubella syndrome. Teratology 31:297-392.

Spence, AA. 1987. Environmental pollution by inhalation anaesthetics. Br J Anaesth 59:96-103.

Stellman, JM. 1976. Women’s Work, Women’s Health: Myths and Realities. New York: Pantheon.

Steppacher, RC and JS Mausner. 1974. Suicide in male and female physicians. JAMA 228(3):323-328.

Sterling, DA. 1994. Overview of health and safety in the health care environment. In Essentials of Modern Hospital Safety, edited by W Charney. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.

Stoklov, M, P Trouiller, P Stieglitz, Y Lamalle, F Vincent, A Perdrix, C Marka, R de Gaudemaris, JM Mallion, and J Faure. 1983. L’exposition aux gaz anethésiques: Risques et prévention. Sem Hôs 58(29/39):2081-2087.

Storer, JS, HH Floyd, WL Gill, CW Giusti, and H Ginsberg. 1989. Effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive ability and skills of pediatrics residents. Acad Med 64:29-32.

Stubbs, DA, PW Buckle, and PM Hudson. 1983. Back pain in the nursing profession; I Epidemiology and pilot methodology. Ergonomics 26:755-765.

Sundström-Frisk C and M Hellström.1995. The risk of making treatment errors, an occupational stressor. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Swann-D’Emilia, B, JCH Chu, and J Daywalt. 1990. Misadministration of prescribed radiation dose. Medical Dosimetry 15:185-191.

Sydow, B and F Hofmann. 1994. Unpublished results.

Tannenbaum, TN and RJ Goldberg. 1985. Exposure to anaesthetic gases and reproductive outcome: A review of epidemiologic literature. J Occup Med 27:659-671.

Teyssier-Cotte, C, M Rocher, and P Mereau. 1987. Les lits dans les établissements de soins. Documents pour le médecin du travail. INRS 29:27-34.

Theorell, T. 1989. The psychosocial working environment. In Occupational Hazards in the Health Professions, edited by DK Brune and C Edling. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Theorell T. 1993. On the psychosocial environment in care. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech : Ecomed Verlag.

Tintori, R and M Estryn-Béhar. 1994. Communication: Où, quand, comment? Critères ergonomiques pour améliorer la communication dans les services de soins. Gestions Hospitalières 338:553-561.

Tintori, R, M Estryn-Behar, J De Fremont, T Besse, P Jacquenot, A Le Vot, and B Kapitaniak. 1994. Evaluation des lits à hauteur variable. Une démarche de recherche en soins infirmiers. Gestions Hospitalières 332:31-37.

Tokars, JI, R Marcus, DH Culver, CA Schable, PS McKibben, CL Bandea, and DM Bell. 1993. Surveillance of HIV infection and zidovudine use among health care workers after occupational exposure to HIV-infected blood. Ann Intern Med 118:913-919.

Toomingas, A. 1993. The health situation among Swedish health care workers. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Topf, M. 1992. Effects of personal control over hospital noise on sleep. Research in Nursing & Health 15(1):19-28.

Tornquist, A and P Ullmark. 1992. Corporate Space and Architecture, Actors and Procedures. Paris: Ministère de l’équipement du logement et des transports.

Townsend, M. 1994. Just a glove? Br J Theatre Nurs 4(5):7,9-10.

Tran, N, J Elias, T Rosenber, D Wylie, D Gaborieau, and A Yassi. 1994. Evaluation of waste anesthetic gases, monitoring strategies and corelations between nitrous oxide levels and health symptoms. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 55(1):36-42.

Turner, AG, CH King, and G Craddock. 1975. Measuring and reducing noise. Noise profile of hospital shows that even “quiet” areas are too noisy. Hospital JAHA 49:85-89.

US Preventive Services Task Force. 1989. Guide to Clinical Preventive Services: An Assessment of the Effectiveness of 169 interventions. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.

Vaillant, GE, NC Sorbowale, and C McArthur. 1972. Some psychologic vulnerabilities of physicians. New Engl J Med 287:372-375.

Vaisman, AI. 1967. Working conditions in surgery and their effects on the health of anesthesiologists. Eskp Khir Anesteziol 12:44-49.

Valentino, M, MA Pizzichini, F Monaco, and M Governa. 1994. Latex-induced asthma in four healthcare workers in a regional hospital. Occup Med (Oxf) 44(3):161-164.

Valko, RJ and PJ Clayton. 1975. Depression in the internships. Dis Nerv Syst 36:26-29.

Van Damme, P and GA Tormanns. 1993. European risk model. In Proceedings of the European Conference on Hepatitis B as an Occupatioonal Hazard. 10-12.

Van Damme, P, R Vranckx, A Safary, FE Andre, and A Mehevs. 1989. Protective efficacy of a recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid hepatitis B vaccine in institutionalized mentally handicapped clients. Am J Med 87(3A):265-295.

Van der Star, A and M Voogd. 1992. User participation in the design and evaluation of a new model hospital bed. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Van Deursen, CGL, CAM Mul, PGW Smulders and CR De Winter. 1993. Health and working situation of day nurses compared with a matched group of nurses on rotating shift work. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Van Hogdalem, H. 1990. Design guidelines for architects and users. In Building for People in Hospitals, Workers and Consumers. Luxembourg: European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions.

Van Wagoner, R and N Maguire. 1977. A study of hearing loss among employees in a large urban hospital. Canadian Journal of Public Health 68:511-512.

Verhaegen, P, R Cober, DE Smedt, J Dirkx, J Kerstens, D Ryvers, and P Van Daele. 1987. The adaptation of night nurses to different work schedules. Ergonomics 30(9):1301-1309.

Villeneuve, J. 1992. Une demarche d’ergonomie participative dans le secteur hôspitalier. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

—. 1994. PARC: Des fondations solides pour un projet de rénovation ou de construction Objectif prévention (Montreal) 17(5):14-16.

Wade, JG and WC Stevens. 1981. Isoflurane: An ansaesthetic for the eighties? Anesth Analg 60(9):666-682.

Wahlen, L. 1992. Noise in the intensive care setting. Canadian Critical Care Nursing Journal, 8/9(4/1):9-10.

Walz, T, G Askerooth, and M Lynch. 1983. The new upside-down welfare state. In Social Work in a Turbulent World, edited by M Dinerman. Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.

Wands, SE and A Yassi. 1993. Modernization of a laundry processing plant: Is it really an improvement? Appl Ergon 24(6):387-396.

Weido, AJ and TC Sim. 1995. The burgeoning problem of latex sensitivity. Surgical gloves are only the beginning. Postgrad Med 98(3):173-174,179-182,184.

Wiesel, SW, HL Feffer, and RH Rothmann. 1985. Industrial Low Back Pain. Charlottesville,VA: Michie.

Wigaeus Hjelm, E, M Hagberg, and S Hellstrom. 1993. Prevention of musculoskeletal disorders in nursing aides by physical training. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Wigand, R and Y Grenner. 1988. Personaluntersuchungen auf Immunität gegen Masern, Varizellen und Röteln, Saarländ. Ärztebl 41:479-480.

Wilkinson, RT, PD Tyler and CA Varey. 1975. Duty hours of young hospital doctors: Effects on the quality of work. J Occup Psychol 48:219-229.

Willet, KM. 1991. Noise-induced hearing loss in orthopaedic staff. J Bone Joint Surg 73:113-115.

Williams, M and JD Murphy. 1991. Noise in critical care units: A quality assurance approach. Journal of Nursing Care Quality 6(1):53-59.

World Health Organization (WHO). 1990. Guidelines on AIDS and First Aid in the Workplace. WHO AIDS Series No. 7. Geneva: WHO.

—. 1991. Biosafety Guidelines for Diagnostic and Research Laboratories Working with HIV. WHO AIDS Series No. 9. Geneva: WHO.

—. 1995. Weekly Epidemiological Report (13 January).

Wugofski, L. 1995. Occupational accident in health care workers—Epidemiology and prevention. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Singapore: International Commission on Occupational Health.

Yassi, A. 1994. Assault and abuse of health care workers in a large teaching hospital. Can Med Assoc J 151(9):1273-1279.

Yassi, A and M McGill. 1991. Determinants of blood and body fluid exposure in a large teaching hospital: Hazards of the intermittent intravenous procedure. American Journal of Infection Control 19(3):129-135.

—. 1995. Efficacy and cost-effectiveness of a needleless intravenous access system. American Journal of Infection Control 22(2):57-64.

Yassi, A, J Gaborieau, J Elias, and D Willie. 1992. Identification and control of hazardous noise levels in a hospital complex. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Yassi, A, D Gaborieau, I Gi